A Glossary/Dictionary of Bonsai Terms

An accent plant is a small plant that is used to enhance the appearance of a bonsai tree when displayed together. It can create contrast, harmony, or context for the bonsai tree, depending on the choice of plant, pot, and placement. An accent plant can reflect the season, the style, or the origin of the bonsai tree. For example, a flowering plant can indicate spring, a grass can match a literati style, or a bamboo can suggest an Asian setting. Some common types of accent plants are mosses, ferns, succulents, and miniature varieties of landscape plants. Accent plants are also known as kusamono in Japanese, which means "something made of or from grass".

An adventitious bud is a bud that grows from a part of a plant that is not the usual site of bud formation, such as the stem, root, or leaf. Adventitious buds can develop in response to various stimuli, such as injury, pruning, or environmental changes. Adventitious buds can help plants to regenerate damaged tissues, produce new branches or leaves, or propagate vegetatively. Some examples of plants that produce adventitious buds are willows, poplars, elms, and ginkgoes.

Air layering is a propagation technique that allows you to produce new plants from existing ones without cutting them off. It involves wounding a stem or branch and covering it with moist sphagnum moss and plastic wrap to encourage root formation. Air layering can be done on many indoor and outdoor plants, such as roses, forsythia, honeysuckle, boxwood, wax myrtle, and others. Air layering is especially useful for plants that are difficult to root from cuttings or seeds. It can also help rejuvenate leggy or bare-stemmed plants by creating a new plant with a shorter stem.

Akadama (赤玉土) is a type of soil that is used for growing bonsai trees and other plants in containers. It is a natural product that comes from the volcanic regions of Japan, especially near Mt. Fuji. Akadama means "red ball earth" in Japanese, because of its color and shape. Akadama has many benefits for plant cultivation, such as water retention, nutrient availability, porosity and drainage. It can be used alone or mixed with other materials, such as sand, bark or peat. Akadama is available in different sizes and grades, depending on the depth of mining and the quality of the soil. Akadama is widely used by bonsai enthusiasts and professionals around the world.

Akadamatsuchi (赤玉土, red ball earth) is a type of soil that is used for bonsai trees and other container-grown plants. It is a granular clay-like mineral that is mined from volcanic ash deposits in Japan, mainly in the Kanto region . Akadamatsuchi has different grades and sizes, depending on the depth and quality of the mining. The deeper-mined grade is harder and more suitable for horticulture than the softer, shallow-mined grade . Akadamatsuchi can be used alone or mixed with other materials such as sand, bark, peat, or lava rock to create a suitable growing medium for different plants . Akadamatsuchi has a pH of 6.9. It can retain water and nutrients while providing porosity and drainage for the roots of the plants . Akadamatsuchi is also valued for its color change when moist, which can help the grower determine when to water the plants.

Akamatsu (赤松) is the Japanese name for the red pine tree (Pinus densiflora), which is native to mountainous regions of Japan and noted for its reddish bark. Akamatsu is often used in bonsai, the art of growing miniature trees in containers, because of its elegant and slender trunk and gentle, long and thin leaves. Akamatsu is also called mematsu (female pine) in contrast to kuromatsu (Japanese black pine), which is more dynamic and robust. To grow akamatsu bonsai, one should use well-drained soil and water the tree moderately after the soil surface dries up. Fertilization should be done sparingly to avoid excessive leaf growth. Akamatsu bonsai can be styled in various ways, such as formal upright, informal upright, slanting, or literati.

Amai (甘い) is a Japanese i-adjective that means 'sweet' in English. It is used to describe a sweet taste, such as in fruits, desserts, or drinks. It can also be used metaphorically to mean 'naive', 'indulgent', or 'sugary' .

In bonsai, amai is a term that refers to the amount of sprinkling water. It means that the water is 'sweet' or 'gentle', meaning that it is not too strong or too much for the bonsai tree. Amai water is suitable for delicate or young bonsai trees that need careful watering.

The apex of a bonsai tree is the highest point of its trunk and branches, where the foliage forms a rounded or triangular shape. The apex is an important element of the bonsai's design, as it reflects the tree's style, age and character. The apex should be balanced with the rest of the tree, neither too heavy nor too sparse, and should create a sense of harmony and continuity. The apex should also be slightly tilted to one side, to avoid a symmetrical and unnatural appearance. The apex can be shaped by pruning, wiring and bending the branches, depending on the desired effect and the type of tree.

Apical is a term used in bonsai to describe the most vigorous growth produced by a tree, usually at the furthest points from the root system, such as the upper and outermost branches. Apical dominance refers to the tendency of trees to grow more at the top than at the bottom. Apical dominance can be reduced by pruning the terminal buds, which stimulates back budding and ramification. Apical dominance is important for creating slant style bonsai, where the apex is located away from the center of the trunk.

Araki (荒木) is a term that refers to a yamadori bonsai, or a tree collected from the wild, that has not yet reached its full potential as a bonsai. Araki means "tree of the mountain" in Japanese, and it implies that the collector respects the nature and the history of the tree, and aims to create a bonsai that can be passed down for generations. 

Argillaceous rock is a type of sedimentary rock that contains clay components. It is often used in bonsai to create dramatic landscapes, such as cliffs or mountains, where the trees grow on or in the rocks. There are two main styles of rock bonsai: Seki-joju, where the roots of the tree wrap around the rock and reach the soil below, and Ishisuki, where the roots are confined within the rock or a container. Argillaceous rock is suitable for bonsai because it breaks down easily when untreated, allowing the roots to penetrate and absorb water and nutrients. However, it also requires careful watering and fertilizing to prevent root rot or nutrient deficiency. Some examples of trees that can grow on argillaceous rock are pines, junipers, maples and azaleas.

Atama (頭) is a Japanese word that means head. It is often used to refer to the head or the crown of a bonsai tree, which is the uppermost part of the foliage. The atama is important for creating a balanced and harmonious appearance of the bonsai, as well as for expressing the age and character of the tree. It should be proportional to the trunk and the branches, and it should have a clear outline and a dense foliage. The atama can be styled in different ways depending on the type and the age of the bonsai tree.

Back-budding is a technique that can stimulate new growth on a tree, especially on bonsai trees. It involves pruning or pinching the apical growth, which is the growth at the end of a branch, to activate dormant buds that are closer to the trunk or the main branches. These dormant buds can develop into new branches that can fill gaps, replace lost branches, or create more foliage pads. Back-budding can also help balance the energy of the tree and improve its appearance. However, not all species of trees can back-bud, and some may only back-bud at the nodes, which are the points where leaves or branches attach to the stem. Therefore, it is important to know the characteristics of your tree before applying this technique.

Baiyobachi is a Japanese term that means "pot for cultivation". It is used to grow and manage bonsai trees on a daily basis, as opposed to hombachi, which means "formal pot" and is used for displaying bonsai trees for appreciation. Baiyobachi pots are made of loose paste that allows better air circulation and drainage for the roots of the bonsai. Bonsai enthusiasts need to choose the right type of pot for their trees depending on their purpose and style.

Ban or Bankon (晩}) is a term used in bonsai to describe rock-like roots that are formed when two or more roots are knit together on the topsoil. These roots are called bankon and they are often seen in deciduous trees, such as ginseng ficus or jade tree. Ban or Bankon roots create a certain aesthetic and can be used to achieve the pillar style or the root-over-rock style of bonsai.

Bleeding in a tree is a phenomenon that occurs when sap oozes out of a wound or crack in the bark. This can be caused by various factors, such as fungal infections, insect damage, mechanical injuries, or environmental stress. Bleeding can indicate a serious problem for the tree, as it may lose vital nutrients and water, and become more vulnerable to diseases and pests. Bleeding can also affect the appearance and quality of the wood, especially in timber trees. Therefore, it is important to identify the cause of bleeding and treat it accordingly.

Boke (焼) is a Japanese name for a species of deciduous shrub that belongs to the Rosaceae family and has the scientific name Chaenomeles speciosa. It is also known as Japanese quince or flowering quince. Boke is popular for bonsai because it produces colorful flowers in early spring, ranging from red, white, pink, or a mix of these hues. Boke is easy to grow and can form multiple trunks from its vigorous buds. However, it needs careful watering to avoid drying out, especially in summer. Boke can be styled in various ways, such as root over rock, informal upright, or slanting . Boke is a beautiful and versatile bonsai that can brighten up any garden or display.

Bonkei (盆景) is a Japanese art form that creates miniature landscapes using dry materials such as rocks, sand, clay, and cement. Unlike bonsai, which uses living trees, bonkei does not contain any living material. Bonkei can be temporary or permanent, and can depict various scenes such as mountains, islands, villages, or farms. Bonkei is displayed on a tray and may include miniature figures and models to enhance the realism. Bonkei is different from bonseki, which is a flat sand-painting that is usually erased after viewing. Bonkei aims to provide a pleasing and detailed representation of nature for display and contemplation.

Bonsai (盆栽) is the Japanese and East Asian art of growing and training miniature trees in containers, developed from the traditional Chinese art form of penjing (盆景). The word bonsai itself is a Japanese pronunciation of the earlier Chinese term penzai. 

Bonsai originated from the Chinese practice of penjing, which dates back to the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE). The earliest illustration of a penjing is found in the Qianling Mausoleum murals at the Tang-dynasty tomb of Crown Prince Zhanghuai, dating to 706.  

Bonsai was introduced to Japan by Buddhist monks and diplomats who visited China during the Kamakura period (1185-1333 CE). The Japanese adapted the Chinese technique to suit their own aesthetic preferences and cultural values. Bonsai became a symbol of harmony between nature and human beings, as well as a form of meditation and contemplation.  

Bonsai can be created from nearly any perennial woody-stemmed tree or shrub species that produces true branches and can be cultivated to remain small through pot confinement with crown and root pruning. Some species are popular as bonsai material because they have characteristics, such as small leaves or needles, that make them appropriate for the compact visual scope of bonsai.

Bonsai soil is a special type of soil that is designed to meet the needs of bonsai trees, which are miniature versions of larger plants. Bonsai soil has to provide good drainage, water retention, aeration, and nutrients for the bonsai tree. Bonsai soil is usually a mix of different ingredients, such as pumice, akadama, compost, chicken grit, and lava rock. Each ingredient has a specific role in the soil mix:

• Pumice is a soft volcanic rock that absorbs water and nutrients and helps retain moisture for the tree.
• Akadama is a hard-baked Japanese clay that improves aeration and oxygen flow to the roots. It also breaks down over time and needs to be replaced every few years.
• Compost is an organic material that provides nutrients and some water retention for the tree. However, it should not be used too much as it can compact the soil and cause root rot.
• Chicken Grit is a coarse material that helps with drainage and prevents waterlogging. It can also be used as a bottom layer in the pot to facilitate water flow.
• Lava rock is another volcanic rock that absorbs and releases water gradually. It also adds structure and prevents soil compaction.

The exact proportions of these ingredients may vary depending on the type of bonsai tree, the climate, and the personal preference of the grower. However, a general guideline is to use 50% akadama, 25% pumice, and 25% lava rock for deciduous trees, and 33% akadama, 33% pumice, and 33% lava rock for conifers. The pH of the bonsai soil should be neutral, between 6.5 and 7.5. Bonsai soil is not just ordinary potting soil. It is a carefully crafted mix that ensures the health and beauty of bonsai trees.

Bonsai wire is a special type of wire that is used to shape and train bonsai trees. It can be made of annealed copper or anodized aluminum, and it comes in different sizes or gauges depending on the thickness of the branches to be wired. Bonsai wire is wrapped around the trunk and branches of a bonsai tree in a spiral pattern, and then the branches are bent to create the desired shape and style. Bonsai wire is usually removed after a few months, when the branches have set in their new position. Bonsai wire is an essential technique for turning a bonsai tree into a work of art.

A botanical name is the formal and scientific name of a plant that follows the rules of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and, if applicable, the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP). A botanical name consists of two parts: the genus name and the specific epithet. The genus name is always capitalized and italicized, while the specific epithet is always lowercase and italicized. For example, the botanical name of the common daisy is Bellis perennis, where Bellis is the genus name and perennis is the specific epithet. Botanical names are useful for identifying plants accurately and avoiding confusion with common names that may vary across languages and regions.   

A bract is a type of leaf that is associated with a flower or a group of flowers. Bracts are different from normal leaves in their size, shape, color or texture. Some bracts are colorful and attract pollinators, while others protect the flowers or help in seed dispersal. Bracts can be found at the base of a flower, along a flower stalk, or around a cone scale. Examples of plants with bracts are poinsettias, dogwoods, grasses and conifers.

A bonsai branch bender is a specialized tool used to shape and bend branches of bonsai trees. It consists of two metal arms for holding and manipulating branches. Using the tool, you can apply varying degrees of pressure to the branch to shape or bend it precisely. Branch benders are essential for creating natural-looking curves and angles in bonsai branches. They come in different sizes and strengths to accommodate different types of branches and trees.

A bonsai branch splitter is a specialized tool used to split trunks or branches of bonsai trees with minimal residual damage. It has a sharp, narrow blade that allows precise cuts and control over the tree's shape. The blade is typically made of high-quality steel and can penetrate wood easily. A bonsai branch splitter can be used to separate branches and trunks into specific sections, making it easier to achieve the desired shape and promote healthy growth.

Tree branches are the parts of a tree that grow out from the trunk or main stem. They provide support for the leaves, flowers and fruits, and also transport water and nutrients throughout the tree. There are different types of tree branches, depending on their position, function and structure.

One way to classify tree branches is by their position on the tree. There are three main types of branches in this category:

• Primary branches: These are the first branches that grow from the trunk. They are usually the largest and strongest branches, and form the main framework of the tree.
• Secondary branches: These are the branches that grow from the primary branches. They are usually smaller and more flexible than the primary branches, and can have different shapes and angles.
• Tertiary branches: These are the smallest and finest branches that grow from the secondary branches. They are often covered with leaves, flowers and fruits, and provide most of the photosynthesis for the tree.

Another way to classify tree branches is by their function or role in the tree. There are two main types of branches in this category:

• Scaffold branches: These are the branches that form the main structure and shape of the tree. They are usually horizontal or slightly angled, and evenly spaced along the trunk or primary branches. They provide stability and balance for the tree, and also allow light to reach the lower parts of the tree.
• Spur branches: These are the short and thin branches that grow from the scaffold branches. They are usually vertical or slightly curved, and clustered near the tips of the scaffold branches. They produce most of the flowers and fruits for the tree, and also store nutrients for future growth.

A third way to classify tree branches is by their structure or morphology. There are two main types of branches in this category:

• Simple branches: These are the branches that have a single stem or axis, without any subdivisions or forks. They can be straight or curved, and have a uniform diameter along their length. They usually end with a terminal bud or a flower.
• Compound branches: These are the branches that have multiple stems or axes, with one or more subdivisions or forks. They can be symmetrical or asymmetrical, and have a variable diameter along their length. They usually end with several lateral buds or flowers.

A bud is an undeveloped or embryonic shoot that may grow into a flower, leaf, or branch. Buds are formed from meristem tissue, which is a group of cells that can divide and differentiate into various plant organs. Buds can be found at the tip of a stem (terminal bud) or in the angle between a leaf and a stem (axillary bud). Buds are often protected by modified leaves called scales that enclose the delicate parts of the bud. Buds can remain dormant for some time, or they can sprout immediately depending on the environmental conditions. Buds are useful for identifying trees in winter when there are no leaves or flowers.

Buds can be classified into different types based on their location, structure, and function. For example, flower buds are modified leaves that produce flowers, while leaf buds produce leaves or branches. Some plants, such as redbud trees, have both types of buds on the same stem.

Bud extension in plants is the process of producing new shoots or branches from buds. Buds are small structures that contain the immature parts of a plant, such as leaves, flowers, or stems. Buds can be found at the tips of stems (terminal bud), in the angles between leaves and stems (axillary bud), or on other parts of the plant (adventitious bud). Buds can be dormant or active, depending on the season and the plant's needs. When a bud becomes active, it starts to grow and extend into a new shoot or branch. This can result in more leaves, flowers, or fruits for the plant. Bud extension is influenced by many factors, such as light, temperature, hormones, pruning, and environmental stress.

A bud extension is also a technique of propagating a new plant from a single bud of a desirable variety. It involves inserting the bud into an opening in the bark of a compatible rootstock, which provides the support and nutrients for the new plant. This method is commonly used for fruit trees, such as apples, pears, and peaches, as well as some ornamental plants. The advantages of bud extension are that it can produce more plants in less time and space than other methods, and it can preserve the characteristics of the original plant. 

Some examples of bud extension techniques are T-budding and chip budding. T-budding involves making a T-shaped cut in the bark of the rootstock and slipping the bud under the flaps of the bark. Chip budding involves cutting a small chip of bark with a bud from the scion and fitting it into a matching cut in the rootstock. Both techniques require wrapping the graft with tape or rubber bands to keep it in place and prevent drying out. The wrapping is removed after the bud has healed and started to grow.

Budburst is a term used in botany to describe the phenomenon of new leaves emerging on a plant at the start of each growing season. Budburst is influenced by various environmental factors, such as temperature, day length, and soil moisture. Budburst is an important indicator of plant health and phenology, which is the study of how plants respond to seasonal changes. Budburst can also have ecological and economic implications, as it affects the interactions between plants and other organisms, such as pollinators, herbivores, and pathogens.

Buna (橅) is a Japanese name for Siebold's beech (Fagus crenata), a tree that grows wild mainly in high mountains. It is one of the world's largest beech forests and a UNESCO World Heritage site. Buna is also a popular bonsai material because of its whitish trunk surface and its male and female flowers that bloom in May. Buna bonsai requires careful attention to water and pruning, as it is sensitive to drought and tends to grow strongly at the top. Buna bonsai can be enjoyed year round, especially in spring for fresh greens and in autumn for colorful leaves.

A buttress in bonsai is the part of the trunk where it meets the soil and spreads out into the roots. It is also called root flare or nebari. A buttress is often styled to give the impression of age and stability to the bonsai tree. It can be influenced by factors such as growing conditions, soil composition, pruning techniques and grafting methods.

A callus on a bonsai tree is a sign of healing after a wound has been made by pruning or removing a branch. A callus is a layer of new tissue that forms around the edge of the wound and gradually rolls inwards to close the gap. A callus can help prevent infection and improve the appearance of the bonsai tree. To promote callus formation, it is important to make clean cuts with sharp tools and avoid tearing the bark. Some bonsai enthusiasts also use concave cutters to create a slightly hollow wound that can heal more evenly. Sometimes, a wound may need to be reopened or scraped to stimulate more callus growth if it is not healing well. A callus can take months or years to fully heal, depending on the size of the wound and the species of the bonsai tree.

The cambium is a layer of cells in plants that produces new tissues such as xylem and phloem. The cambium is located between the xylem and the phloem, and it is responsible for the secondary growth of woody plants. The cambium cells divide and differentiate into either xylem cells, which transport water and minerals, or phloem cells, which transport sugars and organic molecules. The cambium also forms cork cells, which protect the plant from external damage and water loss.

A candle is a term used to describe the new growth of a conifer, such as a pine or a spruce. The candle is the part of the branch that extends beyond the previous year's growth, and it usually has a lighter color and softer texture than the older needles. The candle is where the tree produces new buds, needles, and cones, and it is an indicator of the tree's health and vigor. The length and number of candles can vary depending on the species, age, and environmental conditions of the tree.

The canopy of a tree is the uppermost layer of branches and leaves that covers the ground below. The canopy provides shade, shelter, and habitat for many animals and plants. The canopy also plays an important role in the exchange of gases, water, and energy between the tree and the atmosphere. The canopy can vary in height, density, and structure depending on the type of tree and the environmental conditions.

A chichi is a type of fungal growth that forms on the bark of some trees, especially beeches. Chichis are also known as "wood ears" or "tree ears" because they resemble the shape of human ears. Chichis are not harmful to the trees, but rather live in a symbiotic relationship with them. Chichis help the trees by decomposing organic matter and releasing nutrients into the soil, while the trees provide chichis with a moist and shady habitat. Chichis are edible and are often used in Asian cuisine, especially in soups and stir-fries.

Chicken grit is a type of small stones that chickens need to digest their food. It is usually made from flint or granite, which are insoluble and have a neutral pH. Chicken grit can also be used for plants, especially bonsai trees, that need fast-draining and aerated soil. Chicken grit helps improve the soil structure, drainage, and nutrient balance. However, not all chicken grit is suitable for plants. Some chicken grit contains calcium from ground oyster shells, which can alter the pH of the soil and harm some plants. Therefore, it is important to use chicken grit that is pure granite or flint and free of calcium for bonsai soil mix.

Chlorosis is a condition in which leaves produce insufficient chlorophyll, the pigment that gives plants their green color. Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis, the process by which plants make their own food using light energy. Chlorosis can be caused by various factors, such as mineral deficiencies, soil pH, root damage, poor drainage, or environmental stress. The most common mineral deficiency associated with chlorosis is iron, which is needed for the synthesis of chlorophyll. Iron chlorosis affects the young or terminal leaves first, making them pale, yellow, or yellow-white, while the veins remain green. Other minerals that can cause chlorosis are magnesium and zinc, which affect the older or inner leaves first. Chlorosis can reduce plant growth, flowering, and fruiting, and make plants more susceptible to diseases and pests. To treat chlorosis, it is important to identify the cause and apply the appropriate remedy, such as fertilizers, soil amendments, or cultural practices.

Chohobachi is a Japanese term that means rectangular pot. It is a type of container used for bonsai, especially for evergreen trees such as pines. Chohobachi pots have corners that create a contrast with the curves of the tree trunk and branches, enhancing the dynamism and individuality of the bonsai. Chohobachi pots are usually made of clay and come in different sizes and colors.

Chopping in bonsai is a technique that involves cutting off a large part of the trunk or a branch to create a new leader or a new direction of growth. It is usually done on young or thick-trunked trees that need to be reduced in height or reshaped. Chopping can also be used to create taper, movement, or deadwood features in the bonsai. Chopping is a drastic and risky procedure that requires careful planning, execution, and aftercare. It should only be done when the tree is healthy and vigorous, and at the right time of the year depending on the species. Chopping can result in a dramatic transformation of the bonsai, but it also takes time and patience for the tree to recover and develop new branches and foliage.

Chop is also a term that refers to the seals or stamps that are used in East and Southeast Asian cultures to sign documents, contracts, art, or other items that require acknowledgement or authorship. The word chop comes from the Hindi chapa and the Malay cap, meaning stamp or rubber stamps.  On handmade Chinese and Japanese bonsai pots, many makers apply their chop to the bottom of the pot.

The chukan type of apex is used in the informal upright style of bonsai to create a naturalistic and balanced appearance that is slightly to the side of the center of the trunk's entry into the soil. The branches are asymmetrical and irregularly spaced, and the apex is also broad and dome-shaped, but with some variation.  The chukan apex is formed by bending a branch near the top of the trunk into a circular or oval shape, with the stronger growth on the outside of the bend. This creates a rounded crown that fills in the empty space and contrasts with the curves of the trunk. The chukan apex can be achieved by wiring and pruning the branch carefully, and replacing it gradually with new growth as the tree develops.    This style is suitable for deciduous trees that have a curved or slanted trunk, such as maples and elms.

A common name is a name that is used to identify a plant or a tree by its general characteristics, such as shape, color, smell, or use. Common names are not standardized and may vary from region to region, or even from person to person. For example, the common name "basswood" can refer to different species of the genus Tilia, depending on where you are. Common names are often easier to remember and pronounce than scientific names, which are based on a system of binomial nomenclature that assigns a unique two-part name to each plant or tree. Scientific names are more precise and consistent, but they may change over time due to new discoveries or classifications. For example, the scientific name of the American elm is Ulmus americana, which distinguishes it from other species of elms.

Concave cutters are specialized tools for pruning bonsai trees. They have curved blades that create a concave wound on the branch, which heals faster and with less scarring than a flat or angled cut. Concave cutters are essential for maintaining the health and aesthetics of bonsai, as they allow you to remove unwanted branches without leaving unsightly stubs or bumps. Concave cutters come in different sizes and shapes, depending on the type and thickness of the branch you want to cut. Some common types are black, stainless steel, and round concave cutters. You can use concave cutters to trim both living and dead branches, as well as to remove bark or knobs from the trunk. Concave cutters are made of durable materials, such as carbon steel or stainless steel, and they require proper care and sharpening to keep their edges sharp and prevent rusting.

A conifer tree is a type of plant that produces seeds in structures called cones. Conifer trees usually have leaves that are shaped like needles or scales, and they often stay green throughout the year. Some examples of conifer trees are pines, firs, cypresses, junipers, and yews. Conifer trees can grow in different climates and habitats, and they are important sources of timber, paper, and ornamental plants.

The crown of a bonsai tree is the part that contains the branches and leaves. It is usually shaped and pruned to create a miniature representation of a natural tree. The crown can have different styles, such as formal upright, slanting, cascade, forest, or broom. The crown should be balanced and harmonious with the trunk and the pot. The crown is the most visible and expressive feature of a bonsai tree, and it requires careful attention and maintenance.

A cultivar is a type of plant that has been selected and cultivated by humans for specific traits, such as appearance, flavor, or resistance to pests. The word cultivar comes from the combination of cultivated and variety, indicating that it is a distinct and uniform group of plants within a species. Cultivars are propagated by methods such as seeds, cuttings, grafting, or tissue culture, and they retain their characteristics in each generation. For example, the 'Pink Whirls' cultivar of Osteospermum is a flowering plant that has been bred for its pink and white petals that form a spiral pattern. Cultivars are named according to the rules of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, which require a botanical name followed by a cultivar epithet in quotation marks. For example, Osteospermum 'Pink Whirls'.

Cut paste for bonsai is a type of product that is used to seal wounds, promote healing and prevent infection after pruning or grafting bonsai trees. There are different types of cut paste, such as cream or clay, and different colors to match the bark of the tree. Cut paste is applied by hand or with a brush to the cut area, and it usually falls off when the wound is healed. Cut paste can be found in specialized bonsai stores or online.

See Daiza.

The Japanese word "daiza" (台座) means "stand" or "base" and it is related to bonsai because it is the name of the wooden platform that supports the bonsai pot. A daiza is usually custom-made to fit the shape and size of the pot, and it enhances the aesthetic appeal of the bonsai display. A daiza can also be used to display other objects, such as stones, figurines or accent plants. Daiza are often carved from wood, but they can also be made from metal, stone or ceramic.

Daiza are also used to present and enhance the beauty of suiseki stones. Suiseki (水石) is the Japanese art of stone appreciation, which values aspects like stability, longevity and immortality. The daiza is a carved wooden base, custom-made to accommodate and enhance a stone. It helps stabilize it in a chosen orientation to reveal its potential. Elegant, but discreet, the daiza should not be the main element of the presentation.

Deadwood on a bonsai tree refers to the parts of the tree that have died or been intentionally killed, such as branches, twigs, or roots. Deadwood can be used to create artistic effects, such as simulating age, damage, or natural conditions. Deadwood can also enhance the contrast and texture of the living parts of the tree. However, deadwood also requires special care and maintenance, such as applying preservatives, carving, or wiring, to prevent rotting or infection.

A deciduous tree is a type of tree that loses its leaves at a certain time of the year, usually in autumn or in the dry season. This process is called abscission and it helps the tree to conserve water and energy during unfavorable conditions. Deciduous trees are also known as broadleaf trees or hardwood trees, and they can be found in various regions of the world, such as temperate, tropical and subtropical climates. Some examples of deciduous trees are oak, maple, birch, ash, willow and beech. Deciduous trees often produce flowers and fruits before or after shedding their leaves, which can attract pollinators and disperse seeds. Deciduous trees have different triggers for leaf loss, such as day length, temperature and rainfall.

Defoliation of a bonsai tree is the technique of removing some or all of the leaves from the tree during the summer season. This can help to reduce the size of the new leaves, increase the branching, and improve the health of the tree. However, defoliation should only be done to healthy and mature trees that can tolerate this stress. Defoliation is usually done in late spring or early summer, after the new growth has hardened off. The leaves are cut with scissors or a leaf cutter, leaving the leaf stalks intact. The tree should be watered well before and after defoliation, and not fertilized until new leaves appear. Defoliation can be done to most deciduous trees, but some species may not respond well to this technique.

Diatomaceous earth (DE) is a natural substance that consists of the fossilized remains of diatoms, a type of algae. DE has many benefits for bonsai cultivation, such as improving drainage, aeration, and pest control. DE can be used as a standalone soil or mixed with other components, such as pine bark, pumice, or lava rock. DE is also pH neutral and does not degrade over time. However, DE should be sifted before use to remove any dust or fine particles that can clog the pores and reduce water retention. DE is a good alternative to akadama, a clay-like material that is commonly used in bonsai soil, but may be hard to find or expensive in some regions.

Dieback in a tree is a condition where the tree loses its leaves and branches, starting from the tips and progressing inward. It can be caused by various factors, such as root damage, improper planting depth, drought, disease, insect attack, or environmental stress. Dieback can affect the health and appearance of the tree, and sometimes lead to tree death. To prevent dieback, it is important to plant trees at the right depth, avoid injuring the roots or trunk, water and fertilize properly, and monitor for signs of pests or diseases.

Dissected is a term used to describe the shape and appearance of the leaves of some bonsai trees. Dissected leaves are deeply cut or divided into smaller segments, giving them a delicate and intricate look. Some examples of bonsai trees with dissected leaves are Japanese maple, laceleaf maple, and fernleaf beech. Dissected leaves can enhance the beauty and elegance of a bonsai tree, but they also require careful maintenance and pruning to keep them healthy and balanced.

Dobuki is a term that refers to "adventitious budding", which is the production of new growth buds in unexpected places on the trunk or between the branches of a tree . This phenomenon does not occur unless the tree receives adequate nutrition, water and pruning, and it is also dependent on the species of the tree. Dobuki can eventually form new branches and enhance the shape and density of the bonsai.

Dormancy of a tree is a period of time when the tree is alive but not actively growing. It is a survival adaptation that allows the tree to cope with harsh environmental conditions, such as cold temperatures, short days, and low water availability. During dormancy, the tree slows down its metabolism, stops producing leaves and flowers, and develops cold hardiness. Dormancy is triggered by changes in light and temperature that are sensed by the tree's photoreceptors and hormones. Dormancy helps the tree conserve energy and protect itself from damage until favorable conditions return in spring.

A dwarf tree is a type of tree that has been genetically modified or grafted to limit its growth and size. Dwarf trees are often used for ornamental purposes, such as bonsai, or for fruit production in small spaces, such as balconies or patios. Dwarf trees have the same characteristics and needs as their normal-sized counterparts, but they require less pruning, watering and fertilizing. Dwarf trees can also be more resistant to pests and diseases, as they have less foliage and branches to attract them.

The Japanese word "eda" means branch. There are different types of branches that have specific names and functions in bonsai design, such as sachi eda, uke eda, kiki eda, and kuitsuki eda. Sachi eda is the most dominant branch that defines the flow and direction of the tree. Uke eda is the second most dominant branch that acts as a counterpoint or balance to the sachi eda. Kiki eda is a branch that has a strong effect on the overall impression of the tree. Kuitsuki eda is a branch that is smaller than the main branch and grows from its base.

The Japanese word "edabone" means the framework of a branch on a tree and the way the branch's core flows. It is an important term in bonsai appreciation, as it reflects the natural growth and beauty of the tree. Edabone can be influenced by pruning, wiring and bending techniques, but it should always look harmonious and balanced. Edabone is also related to the concept of tapering, which means that the branch should gradually become thinner from the base to the tip.

The Japanese word "edafuse" means a technique of turning a branch that is facing upward to a horizontal or face-down position. This improves the exposure of the root parts of the tree branches to sunlight and air, and reduces the dominance of the top branches. Edafuse is often used for bonsai trees that have a natural tendency to grow upward, such as pines.

The Japanese word "edajun" means the necessary branches lined up in order in a bonsai tree. The branch counted first from the base of the roots is "ichinoeda" (first branch), the branches separated left and right from the trunk are "ninoeda" and "sannoeda" (second and third branches), and the branch at the top is "kikieda" (point branch). The edajun is important for creating a balanced and harmonious bonsai design.

The Japanese word "edanuki" means the removal of unwanted branches, but not just by pulling off the twigs. Edanuki involves cutting off relatively large branches, including those that are sticking out of the trunks. This technique is used to improve the shape and balance of a bonsai tree, as well as to reduce the risk of infection or rotting. Edanuki is different from tanuki, which is a type of bonsai that uses a deadwood piece to create an illusion of age and character.

The Japanese word "edatana" means a branch shelf. It is a mass of leaves that springs from a branch and is separated into small groups instead of being kept in a lump. This process of dividing them is called tanawari. It helps to show the depth of the leaves and improve the sunlight and ventilation conditions for the bonsai.

Edatsuki is a Japanese term that refers to how branches are attached and how they come out of a bonsai tree. It also includes the characteristics of branches such as their lengths and patterns. Edatsuki is related to edajun, which means the order or arrangement of branches from the base of the trunk. Edatsuki and edajun are important aspects of bonsai aesthetics and design.

Edauchi is a term that means trimming of branches to show how they are being settled or to demonstrate a state of their condition. It is a technique used in bonsai cultivation to create spaces between the branches and the trunk, and to promote the development of regular branches. Edauchi is also a phenomenon that occurs naturally when branches grow away from the trunk due to the influence of light, gravity, and wind.

Enoki is the Japanese name for the Chinese hackberry tree, which is a species that can be used for bonsai. Enoki grows wild near seas, rivers and waterfront areas. It has light-yellow male and female flowers that bloom in April and May, but they are not very noticeable. The fruits are small and purple, and they attract birds. Enoki is a deciduous tree that can reach up to 20 meters in height. It has oval-shaped leaves that turn yellow in autumn.

Enoki bonsai can be shaped in various styles, such as formal upright, informal upright, slanting, cascade, or forest. The bark is smooth and gray, and it can be enhanced by carving or stripping techniques. The branches are flexible and easy to wire. The leaves can be reduced by defoliation or pruning. Enoki bonsai needs full sun or partial shade, moderate watering, and regular fertilizing. It is hardy to cold and frost, but it should be protected from strong winds.

Ericaceous is a term that refers to plants that prefer acidic soil conditions, such as azaleas, rhododendrons, camellias and blueberries. These plants have adapted to thrive in environments with low pH levels, where other plants may struggle to absorb nutrients. For bonsai enthusiasts, ericaceous plants require special care and attention, especially when it comes to the choice of soil, fertilizer and water. 

Ericaceous bonsai can benefit from using kanuma, a Japanese volcanic soil that has excellent drainage and water retention properties, as well as a pH of 5.5. Kanuma can be used on its own or mixed with other substrates to create a suitable growing medium for acid-loving plants. Alternatively, ericaceous bonsai can be grown in regular bonsai soil, but with the addition of an acidic fertilizer, such as Green Dream Ericaceous, which contains seaweed extracts and trace elements that help combat excessive calcification of the soil mix. 

Another factor to consider is the quality of the water used for ericaceous bonsai. Hard water, which has high levels of calcium and magnesium, can raise the pH of the soil and cause nutrient deficiencies or toxicity for ericaceous plants. Therefore, it is advisable to use rainwater or distilled water for watering ericaceous bonsai, or to add some vinegar or citric acid to the tap water to lower its pH. By providing the right soil, fertilizer and water conditions, ericaceous bonsai can grow healthily and produce beautiful flowers.

An evergreen tree is a plant that has foliage that remains green and functional through more than one growing season. This contrasts with deciduous trees, which lose their foliage during the winter or dry season. Evergreen trees include most species of conifers, such as pine, spruce, and fir, as well as some broadleaf plants, such as live oak, holly, and eucalyptus. Evergreen trees are common in tropical rainforests, warm temperate climates, and some cold regions.

See Fine root.

Feng shui is an ancient Chinese practice that aims to harmonize individuals with their surrounding environment by using energy forces. The term feng shui literally means "wind-water", which reflects the idea that landscapes and bodies of water can influence the flow of the universal Qi, or cosmic energy, through places and structures. Feng shui can be applied to various aspects of life, such as architecture, interior design, health, wealth, and relationships. By arranging objects and spaces in a beneficial way, feng shui practitioners seek to create positive chi, or life force, that can enhance well-being and prosperity.

Fertilizer is a substance that is added to soil or plant tissues to provide nutrients that are essential for plant growth. There are different types of fertilizers, such as natural or organic fertilizers (e.g., manure, compost, guano) and synthetic or inorganic fertilizers (e.g., urea, ammonium nitrate, superphosphate). Fertilizers usually contain three main macronutrients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), which are often expressed as a ratio on the fertilizer label (e.g., 10-10-10). Fertilizers may also contain micronutrients, such as iron, zinc, copper, and manganese, which are needed in smaller amounts by plants. Fertilizers can enhance the fertility of the soil, increase crop yields, and improve the quality of agricultural products. However, fertilizers can also have negative impacts on the environment, such as water pollution, soil degradation, greenhouse gas emissions, and biodiversity loss. Therefore, fertilizers should be used wisely and according to the needs of the plants and the soil conditions.

A fibrous root is a type of root system that does not have a dominant central root, but instead has many thin and branching roots that grow from the base of the stem. Fibrous roots are common in monocotyledonous plants (plants with one seed leaf) and ferns, such as grasses, palms, and orchids. Fibrous roots help these plants to anchor to the soil, prevent erosion, and absorb water and nutrients from a large surface area. Fibrous roots usually grow close to the surface of the ground and have a mat-like appearance when mature.

Fine roots are plant roots that have a diameter of two millimeters or less. They are mainly involved in acquiring soil resources, such as water and nutrients, and transporting them to other parts of the plant. Fine roots are similar to the leaves and twigs of the shoot system in terms of their function. Fine roots can vary in their traits and strategies depending on the species and the environmental conditions. Fine roots can also be classified into subcategories based on their diameter, position in the root system, and primary function.  

Some examples of trees that have fine roots are white oak, walnut, hickory, black gum, sassafras, sweet gum, Japanese pagoda, butternut, and pine. These trees have developed deep and robust taproots that can reach the water table and withstand drought. The taproot is the first and main root that emerges from a germinated seed. The taproot can produce lateral branches that also have fine roots. The fine roots of these trees can penetrate rocks to extract minerals that the tree needs.

A foliage pad is a term used in bonsai to describe a mass of leaves that forms a cloud-like shape on a branch. Foliage pads are created by training each branch and carefully pruning the spreading twigs to ensure ample leaf growth. Foliage pads are often seen in juniper bonsai, where they can be shaped by wiring and trimming the foliage mass. Foliage pads help to create a more mature and realistic appearance for the bonsai tree.

Foliar feeding is a technique of feeding plants by applying liquid fertilizer directly to the leaves. Plants are able to absorb essential elements through their leaves, especially trace minerals such as iron, zinc and calcium. Foliar feeding can be beneficial for plants that are stressed, deficient in a single nutrient, or growing in poor soil conditions. However, foliar feeding should not replace soil fertilization, as plants need most of their nutrients from the roots. Foliar feeding should be done in the early morning or late evening, when the stomata are open and the temperature is low. A surfactant can help the nutrients stick to the leaf and penetrate the cuticle.

The "form" of a bonsai is the overall shape and style that the tree is trained to achieve. There are many different forms of bonsai, such as formal upright, informal upright, slanting, cascade, semi-cascade, literati, forest, raft, broom and windswept. Each form has its own characteristics and guidelines, but the ultimate goal is to create a harmonious and balanced miniature representation of nature. The form of a bonsai depends on several factors, such as the species of the tree, the age of the tree, the direction of the trunk and branches, the pruning and wiring techniques, and the personal preference of the artist.

Fuji is the Japanese name for Wisteria floribunda, a species of flowering vine native to Japan. It produces long clusters of fragrant, bluish-purple flowers in spring, which can reach up to 50 cm in length. Wisteriais often used in gardens to grow over pergolas or facades, creating a stunning display of color and scent. Wisteria can also be grown as a bonsai tree, but it requires some special care and maintenance. It needs full sun exposure, regular watering and fertilizing, and frequent pruning to control its vigorous growth and promote flowering. Most wisteria bonsai are of medium or large size because the long flower clusters need some height to hang from. They are very well suited for bonsai, but their special feature is the flowers.

Bonsai require special care and attention to prevent pests and diseases. Fungicides are chemicals that can help to control fungal infections that can damage the leaves, stems, and roots of bonsai. There are different types of fungicides, and each one has its own advantages and disadvantages. Some of the common fungicides for bonsai are: Lime sulfur: This is a broad-spectrum fungicide that can kill various fungi, as well as insects and mites. It can also be used to preserve exposed deadwood and to kill overwintering pests during dormancy. However, it has a strong odor, can stain the bark, and can be toxic to humans and animals if ingested or inhaled. Copper spray: This is a topical fungicide that can prevent and treat fungal diseases such as leaf spot, rust, blight, and mildew. It can also act as a bactericide and an algaecide. However, it can be phytotoxic to some plants, especially if applied in high concentrations or under hot or humid conditions. Chlorothalonil: This is a contact fungicide that can protect bonsai from fungal diseases such as powdery mildew, downy mildew, anthracnose, and botrytis. It can also be used as a dormant spray to prevent fungal spores from germinating. However, it can be harmful to beneficial insects, fish, and wildlife, and it can cause skin and eye irritation in humans.

The "furi" of a bonsai is a Japanese term that refers to the style or shape of the tree. It is one of the most important aspects of bonsai art, as it reflects the natural beauty and harmony of the plant. The furi can be influenced by many factors, such as the species, age, size, environment, and pruning techniques of the bonsai. There are many different types of furi, such as formal upright, informal upright, slanting, cascade, semi-cascade, literati, forest, raft, and root-over-rock. Each type has its own characteristics and aesthetic principles that require skill and creativity to achieve.

The Japanese word "Furuhatori" means cutting old leaves. It is a technique used in bonsai to improve the health and appearance of the trees. By removing old leaves from summer to autumn, the bonsai artist can provide sufficient sunlight and ventilation to the roots of the branches, which are essential for photosynthesis and respiration. Furuhatori also helps to reduce pests and diseases that may affect the foliage. Furuhatori is usually done on deciduous trees, such as maples, elms, and hornbeams, but can also be applied to some evergreens, such as pines and junipers.

Futeiga is a Japanese term that means "indefinite buds". It refers to buds that come out from unexpected parts of a plant, other than the stem, tips of branches and leaf axils from where buds usually come out. Futeiga buds are often seen in bonsai trees, especially after pruning or wiring. They can be used to create new branches or fill in gaps in the design. Futeiga buds are also a sign of the tree's vitality and health.

The Japanese word "Futokoro" means "bosom" or "pocket." In bonsai, it refers to the root parts of tree branches that are close to the tree trunk, which are valued in bonsai art.  Bonsai trees with branchy futokoro are considered more attractive and natural, as they show the connection between the trunk and the branches. The futokoro also helps to create depth and perspective in the bonsai design.

A genus is a category of biological classification that ranks between the family and the species, and consists of related species that share common characteristics. The genus name is the first word of a binomial scientific name, and is always capitalized. For example, the genus name of the rose plant is Rosa, which contains more than 100 species of roses.  

A plant genus is a taxonomic group that unites closely related plant species that have a common ancestor. Plant genera are often named after their most distinctive or representative species, or after the person who discovered or described them. For example, the plant genus Ginkgo is named after its only living species, Ginkgo biloba, which is also called the maidenhair tree.

Plant germination is the process of a seed sprouting and developing into a new plant. It involves the reactivation of the metabolic activities of the seed, which were suspended during dormancy. The seed absorbs water and oxygen from the environment, and breaks through the seed coat. The first structures to emerge from the seed are the radicle (the embryonic root) and the plumule (the embryonic shoot). The radicle anchors the plant in the soil, while the plumule grows upwards and produces leaves. The germination process depends on various internal and external factors, such as temperature, light, moisture, and seed quality. Some seeds may require a period of afterripening or exposure to certain stimuli to overcome dormancy and germinate.

The girth of a tree is the measurement of its circumference at a certain height above the ground. It is usually taken at breast height, which is about 1.3 meters for most trees. The girth of a tree can be used to estimate its age, health, and biomass. To measure the girth of a tree, one can use a flexible tape measure or a string that can be wrapped around the trunk and then measured with a ruler. Alternatively, one can use a formula that relates the diameter of a tree to its girth, such as girth = pi * diameter.

The Japanese word "giseishi" means a sacrificial branch, which is a branch that is deliberately left to grow in order to thicken the trunk of the tree, but will not be part of the final design and will be removed later. The term "giseishi" literally means "false branch".

The Japanese word "Gorotsuchi" means coarse soil that is used at the bottom of the pot for good drainage. Soil for bonsai and different sand types are separated according to purpose of use. The coarsest grain among them measuring between 7 to 10 millimeters is known as gorotsuchi . Gorotsuchi is important for preventing root rot and allowing air circulation in the pot.

The Japanese word "Goyomatsu" means Japanese white pine or Japanese five needle pine. It is a type of evergreen tree that has five short needles in each cluster, giving it a voluminous appearance. Goyomatsu bonsai is highly valued for its graceful form that embodies softness and feminine suppleness, and it is sometimes called the "Queen of Bonsai". It is also a symbol of longevity and an auspicious gift. Goyomatsu bonsai requires well-drained soil, sufficient sunlight and good ventilation. There are different varieties of Goyomatsu bonsai, such as Shikoku goyo, Yatsufusa, Kokonoe and Zuisho, each with its own characteristics and preferences.

Grafting is a horticultural technique that involves joining two plants together so that they grow as one. The upper part of the graft, which produces the stems, leaves, flowers, or fruits, is called the scion. The lower part, which provides the roots and support, is called the rootstock. Grafting can be used to change the variety of a large tree, to improve disease resistance or productivity, to create dwarf specimens, or to develop new varieties. Grafting requires that the vascular tissues of the scion and rootstock are aligned and protected until they heal and fuse together. By grafting, you can add a branch, change the foliage, improve the root flare, or combine different plants together.

Hachiutsuri is a Japanese word that means the harmony or balance between a bonsai tree and its pot. It is one of the criteria for judging the quality and aesthetics of a bonsai. A good hachiutsuri depends on the shape, size, color and style of both the tree and the pot. For example, a slender and delicate tree would match well with a shallow and round pot, while a strong and vigorous tree would suit a deep and angular pot. The choice of pot also reflects the natural environment of the tree, such as mountainous, coastal or tropical. Hachiutsuri is not a fixed rule, but a subjective impression that can vary depending on the preference and experience of the bonsai artist or viewer.

Hagari is a term used in bonsai to describe the process of cutting leaves off with scissors or other cutting tools, except for leaf stalks. It is usually done from mid-May to mid-June after fresh buds come out and firm up in spring. Hagari is done to remove leaves that grow too large, refresh them, and reduce their size. It also helps to adjust the growth momentum of the plant and to enjoy the delicacy of fine branches in winter. Hagari can also affect the timing of leaf emergence and the quality of autumn colors. However, leaves that come out after Hagari are thin and weak, and more prone to diseases, so anti-disease measures should be taken at an early stage.

Hagi is a Japanese name for bush clover, a type of flowering plant that belongs to the Fabaceae family. Hagi is often used for bonsai cultivation because of its lovely butterfly-like flowers that come in various colors, such as rose-pink and purplish red. Hagi bonsai requires sufficient water and fertilization, and it is relatively weak against the cold. It can be grown indoors without heating, but it needs good ventilation to prevent plant lice infestation. Hagi bonsai can be combined with deadwood techniques, such as jin, shari and uro, to create more character and contrast.  These techniques mimic the natural effects of lightning, drought, ice, wind or snow on the trees. Deadwood should be bleached with lime sulfur to prevent rotting and to enhance the appearance.

Hagiri is a term used in bonsai to describe the technique of cutting leaves partially. It is done to improve the appearance of the leaves when they are too large or irregular, and to reduce the loss of moisture from the leaves during grafting. Hagiri is usually applied to deciduous trees, such as maples, elms and hornbeams.  

Hagiri is different from defoliation, which involves removing all the leaves from a branch or a tree.

Hair roots (often mislabeled as fine roots or feeder roots) are also called a root hairs or trichoblasts.  They are a thin extension of a root cell that increases the surface area for water and nutrient absorption. They are only present on young roots that have not developed a protective layer of cells called the epidermis. Hair roots are very delicate and can be easily damaged by soil disturbance or drought. Hair roots can increase the surface area of the root by up to 600 times .

Hako-kazari is a bonsai dressing-up style that uses a box-type display shelf. This style is used for displaying small bonsai pieces, also known as Shohin, in a harmonious and elegant way. Hako-kazari allows the viewer to appreciate the beauty and variety of different bonsai trees in a limited space. The arrangement of the trees on the shelf follows some aesthetic principles, such as balance, contrast, and seasonal expression.

The term "hame" refers to the part of a plant that connects the leaf blade to the stem. It is also known as the petiole or leaf stalk. The hame plays an important role in supporting the leaf and facilitating the transport of water and nutrients between the leaf and the rest of the plant. The hame can vary in length, shape, color and texture depending on the species and environmental conditions of the plant.

Hamizu is a Japanese term that means "misting" of bonsai trees. It is the act of moistening the leaves with water to replenish them or to adjust their surface temperature. Hamizu differs from nemizu, which is watering a tree at its root. Hamizu is done to prevent the leaves from drying out or getting burned by the sun.

"Haname" is a term used when referring to a bud that sends out flower-blooming branches. It can be a floral stem that appears at the end of a branch that has grown too long (tocho-shi). Also, it can be a bud that appears on a short but thick branch. Haname is part of the natural cycle of flowering trees, such as cherry blossoms, that are often used as bonsai material. Haname also symbolizes the beauty and fragility of life, as the flowers are short-lived and fall off quickly.

Hanedashi is a Japanese term that refers to one or two trunks in a multi-trunk bonsai tree that sprout out to the right or left, creating a dynamic and asymmetrical appearance . Hanedashi is an important factor for bonsai aesthetics and value, as it adds interest and movement to the composition . Hanedashi trunks are usually smaller than the main trunk and can be positioned at different heights and angles. Hanedashi can be used in various bonsai styles, such as group planting, forest planting, or clump style.

Hanuki is a Japanese term that refers to the practice of removing all the leaves from a bonsai tree in order to stimulate new growth and improve the shape and ramification of the branches. Hanuki is usually done in late spring or early summer, when the tree has enough energy to recover from the stress of defoliation. Hanuki is not suitable for all species of bonsai, and should be done with caution and care. Some benefits of hanuki are that it can reduce the leaf size, increase the density of foliage, reveal the structure of the trunk and branches, and enhance the color of flowers and fruits.

Hard pruning of a bonsai tree is a technique that is used to reduce the size and shape of the tree, or to encourage new growth from dormant buds. It involves cutting back the trunk or branches to just above where new growth is desired. Hard pruning should be done in the spring or summer, when the tree is actively growing and can heal faster. Hard pruning can be stressful for the tree, so it should be done with care and not too frequently. Some species of bonsai, such as pines and junipers, require special methods of hard pruning, such as pinching by hand or using concave cutters. Hard pruning can help create a more compact and refined bonsai, but it should always be done with a clear vision and respect for the natural characteristics of the tree .

Plant hardiness is a term that refers to the ability of plants to survive adverse climatic conditions, especially cold temperatures. Different plants have different levels of hardiness, depending on their native geographic location and adaptation. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map is a tool that helps gardeners and growers to determine which plants are most likely to thrive in their location, based on the average annual minimum winter temperature. The map divides the country into 10-degree F zones and 5-degree F half-zones, ranging from zone 1a (below -60 F) to zone 13b (65 to 70 F). By knowing the plant hardiness zone of their area, gardeners can choose plants that are suitable for their climate and avoid planting those that are too tender or too hardy.

Hariganekane is a Japanese term that means wiring. It is a technique used in bonsai cultivation to shape the trunks and branches of the trees by wrapping them with copper or aluminum wires. Wiring can help a bonsai tree grow faster and more beautifully than using scissors alone. Hariganekane is related to bonsai because it is one of the most important and difficult processes in creating a bonsai masterpiece.

A harunire is a type of elm tree that grows in Japan. It is a deciduous, broad-leaved tree that blooms around April and has yellow leaves in autumn. It is also known as Japanese elm or Ulmus davidiana. Harunire is used as a bonsai material because of its small leaves, rough bark and flexible branches.

Hasami-zukuri is a Japanese term that literally means scissors work. It is a technique of shaping bonsai trees only by pruning with scissors, without relying on the use of wires. This method is said to create a more natural look and to bring out the quality of the tree branches according to the age of the tree. Hasami-zukuri is often used for deciduous trees that have thin branches and delicate foliage.

Hashiri-eda is a Japanese term that means "a running branch". It refers to a branch that grows much stronger than other branches, especially in deciduous trees. A hashiri-eda may come out when a tree goes off balance and extends its thick root into the soil. In bonsai, a hashiri-eda can be used to create a new tree by air layering or cutting it off and planting it separately. However, a hashiri-eda can also disrupt the balance and harmony of the bonsai design, so it may need to be pruned or wired to control its growth.

Hashiri-ne is a term that means "running root" in Japanese. It refers to a root that grows much longer in soil than other roots. It is also called "abare-ne" or "ramp root". Hashiri-ne is often seen in bonsai trees that are off-balance or stressed, and they try to extend their roots to the ground for stability and nourishment. Hashiri-ne can be used in bonsai to create interesting styles, such as the neagari or exposed root style, where the long roots are visible above the soil. However, hashiri-ne can also cause problems for bonsai, such as weakening the other roots, disrupting the balance of the tree, or making repotting difficult. Therefore, hashiri-ne should be trimmed or removed regularly to maintain the health and appearance of the bonsai.

Hasho is a Japanese term that refers to the ratio of the leaf size to the trunk diameter of a bonsai tree. It is an important factor in creating a harmonious and realistic appearance of a miniature tree. A bonsai with a large trunk and small leaves is said to have good hasho, while a bonsai with a thin trunk and large leaves is said to have poor hasho. Hasho can be improved by various techniques, such as defoliation, leaf pruning, leaf pinching, and selecting appropriate species for bonsai.

Hataagemono is a term that refers to a bonsai tree that is transplanted into a pot after being grown in a field. A Hataagemono grows for short periods and is traded at low prices despite its large size. The word Hataagemono means "field thing" in Japanese. It is not a specific style or technique of bonsai, but rather a way of producing bonsai material quickly and cheaply.

Hayake is a term used in bonsai to describe the burning of leaves. It refers to leaf tips running dry or leaves turning brownish or yellow and occurs because water absorbed from the root will not go to the leaves. Hayake can be caused by various factors, such as insufficient watering, excessive sunlight, low humidity, pests, diseases, or nutrient deficiencies. To prevent hayake, bonsai growers should monitor the soil moisture, adjust the light exposure, mist the foliage, inspect the plant for signs of damage, and fertilize regularly.

Hazumi is a Japanese term that describes the vitality and vigor of a bonsai tree. It literally means impulsion or momentum, and it is used to express the good condition and shape of the tree and its branches. A bonsai tree with hazumi has well-balanced, varied and dynamic branches that depict scenes in nature. Hazumi is an important aspect of bonsai art, as it reflects the harmony and balance between the tree and its environment.

See Oblique roots.

Hibai is a term that refers to the artificial replenishment of nutrition in plants, especially in hydroponic systems.  It is derived from the Japanese word for "fertilizer", and it involves applying a mixture of organic and inorganic substances to the soil or the roots of the plants. Hibai can enhance the growth, health, and appearance of plants and bonsai by providing them with essential nutrients and minerals. Hibai can also help prevent or treat diseases, pests, and environmental stress in plants and bonsai. Hibai is usually done periodically, depending on the type, size, and condition of the plants and bonsai.

The Japanese term "Hidarinagare" means "left flow" as it relates to bonsai. It is a term used to describe the direction of the trunk and branches of a bonsai tree that curve or lean to the left. It is the opposite of "Miginagare" which means "right flow". Hidarinagare and Miginagare are also known as "left movement" and "right movement" respectively.

Hidarinagare is one of the ways to classify bonsai trees based on their style or shape. It is a variation of the informal upright style (Moyogi), which is characterized by a trunk that bends and twists but still grows vertically. Hidarinagare and Miginagare are subcategories of Moyogi that indicate whether the trunk flows to the left or right .

Hidarinagare can create a sense of movement and dynamism in a bonsai tree, as well as balance and harmony. It can also reflect the natural conditions that influence the growth of trees, such as wind, sunlight, or gravity.

Hikobae is a Japanese term that refers to the emergence of an indefinite bud (futeiga) from under the surface at the root of a tree. It also means the bud itself. This phenomenon often occurs in shrubby, multi-trunk species of plants. Hikobae buds can weaken the tree if left unremoved, but they can also be used for propagation by division in some cases. Hikobae is related to bonsai because it is a technique to create new bonsai material from existing trees.  

Himeringo is a Japanese name for a variety of crabapple tree (Malus prunifolia) that is often used for bonsai. It has pink flower buds that open into white petals, and green fruits that turn red in the fall. The fruits are not edible, but they are attractive and decorative. Himeringo trees need cross-pollination from another crabapple species, such as Toringo, to produce fruits. They also need protection from strong sunlight and water shortages in the summer. Himeringo trees are popular for their pretty flowers and fruits, which can be enjoyed in spring and autumn respectively.

Hombachi is a Japanese term that means "formal pot". It is a type of container that is used to plant a bonsai tree for appreciation. Hombachi pots are usually not suitable for plant cultivation, because they lack air circulation and drainage. Therefore, bonsai growers often use baiyobachi pots, which are made of loose clay, to grow and manage bonsai trees on a daily basis. Hombachi pots are only used for display purposes, and they should match the style and size of the bonsai tree.

The Japanese word "hone" (骨) means "bone" in English. It is used to refer to the core elements of a tree, such as root parts, trunks and thick branches, which cannot be remade easily. "Hone" can decide the individuality of a tree and is an important factor in bonsai art.

The English word "hone" means to sharpen or refine something, especially a skill or an instrument, such as a bonsai cutting tool.

Humidity is the concentration of water vapor present in the air, which is usually invisible to the human eye. Humidity affects the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog to be present, as well as the comfort and health of living beings. Humidity is often measured by relative humidity, which is the ratio of water vapor in the air to the maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold at a given temperature, expressed as a percentage. High relative humidity means that the air is close to saturation, which can make it feel hot and sticky, and prevent sweat from evaporating. Low relative humidity means that the air is dry, which can cause dehydration and irritation. Humidity also influences the formation of weather phenomena such as clouds, rain, and hurricanes.

A humidity tray is a tray filled with water and pebbles or charcoal that sits under a bonsai tree. It helps to create a humid environment around the tree and prevent the roots from drying out. A humidity tray is especially useful for bonsai trees that need high humidity, such as tropical and subtropical species.

To use a humidity tray for bonsai, you need to find a tray that is large enough to fit your bonsai pot and fill it with pebbles or charcoal. The pebbles or charcoal should be about 0.5 to 1 inch high and cover the entire surface of the tray. Then, place your bonsai pot on top of the pebbles or charcoal, making sure that the bottom of the pot does not touch the water. Water your bonsai tree from above, letting the excess water drain into the tray. The water in the tray will evaporate slowly, increasing the humidity around the tree.

You should check the water level in the tray regularly and refill it as needed. You should also clean the tray and replace the pebbles or charcoal periodically to prevent algae and mold growth. A humidity tray can help your bonsai tree thrive in dry conditions and improve its health and appearance.

Ibigawa Rock is a type of volcanic conglomerate that is formed by the fusion of different rock types under the heat of a volcano. It is a popular choice for bonsai enthusiasts because it has an attractive color, shape, and texture that resembles natural landscapes. Ibigawa Rock is often used for planting bonsai on rock, a technique that involves attaching the roots of the tree to the crevices or holes of the rock and covering them with soil or moss. This creates a stunning effect of a miniature tree growing on a mountain or cliff. Planting bonsai on rock requires careful selection of the rock and the tree, as well as proper maintenance of the water and fertilizer levels.

An ichii is the Japanese name for a Japanese yew, a type of evergreen coniferous tree that grows in Japan and other parts of Asia. It is a popular species for bonsai, as it has dark green needles, reddish-brown bark, and fleshy red fruits. Ichii bonsai can be styled in various ways, such as formal upright, informal upright, slanting, or cascade. They require well-drained soil, moderate watering, and partial shade. They can tolerate cold temperatures, but should be protected from frost. Ichii bonsai can be pruned and wired throughout the year, but care should be taken not to damage the bark or the fruits.

An Ichinoeda is a type of Chinese Penjing that consists of a single tree planted in a shallow container. The word Ichinoeda means "one branch" in Japanese, and it refers to the style of pruning the tree to have only one main branch. This creates a simple and elegant appearance that contrasts with the complex and naturalistic Penjing landscapes that often include rocks, water, and figurines .

Ichinoeda is used for bonsai to create a minimalist and refined aesthetic that focuses on the shape and movement of the trunk and branch. It is also a way to showcase the beauty of the tree species, such as the Chinese elm, which has small leaves, fine ramification, and attractive bark . Ichinoeda can be displayed as a single specimen or as part of a group planting.

An Icho is the Japanese name for the Ginkgo biloba tree, a species that has existed for over 200 million years. It is also known as the maidenhair tree or the living fossil. Icho is often used for bonsai because of its distinctive fan-shaped leaves, which turn bright yellow in autumn. Icho bonsai can be grown in various styles, such as formal upright, slanting, or broom. Some Icho bonsai may also produce aerial roots or chichi, which are considered a sign of age and beauty. Icho bonsai require full sun, well-drained soil, and moderate watering. They are also tolerant of cold and pollution.

Ikebana is the Japanese art of flower arrangement. The term itself translates to “making flowers come alive,” which suits the practice as practitioners of ikebana work to bring out emotions and feelings through the flora they choose. Japanese ikebana involves the arrangement of flowers, branches, leaves, blossoms, and even stems. Ikebana is counted as one of the three classical Japanese arts of refinement, along with kōdō for incense appreciation and chadō for tea and the tea ceremony. The tradition dates back to Heian period (794–1185), when floral offerings were made at altars. The first school of flower arranging in Japan, Ikenobō, was founded by Ono no Imoko in the early 7th century. There are different styles of ikebana, such as rikka, shōka, nageire, moribana, and zen’ei ikebana. Each style has its own rules and principles of composition, based on a harmony of simple linear construction and an appreciation of the subtle beauty of natural material . Ikebana is not only a decorative art, but also a spiritual discipline that cultivates inner peace and harmony with nature.

Ikimichi is a term used in bonsai to refer to the trunk lifeline of certain coniferous trees, such as shimpaku (Sargent's juniper), tosho (Japanese needle juniper) and ichii (Japanese yew) . It is similar to mizusui, which means lifeline in Japanese. Ikimichi is a section of the trunk that has live bark and sapwood, while the rest of the trunk may be deadwood or jin . Ikimichi is important for the health and survival of the tree, as it allows water and nutrients to flow from the roots to the foliage. Ikimichi is also an aesthetic element in bonsai, as it creates contrast and interest in the trunk design.

Ikimichi is used in bonsai by preserving and enhancing its natural shape and position on the trunk. Sometimes, ikimichi may be created artificially by carving or stripping away some of the bark and wood, but this should be done carefully and sparingly to avoid harming the tree.

"In training" is a term that refers to the process of shaping and maintaining a bonsai tree. It involves pruning, wiring, repotting, and other techniques that help the tree achieve a desired aesthetic and health. In training does not mean that the tree is unfinished or incomplete, but rather that it is constantly evolving and adapting to its environment. Bonsai trees can remain in training for decades or even centuries, depending on the species and the style of the artist.

There are different kinds of insecticides that can be used for bonsai, depending on the type of pests you want to control and the level of toxicity you are comfortable with. Some of the common pests that affect bonsai are spider mites, aphids, mealybugs, and scale insects. Some insecticides are systemic, meaning they are absorbed by the plant and kill any insects that feed on it. These can be effective against root pests, but they may also harm beneficial insects or contaminate nearby plants. Some examples of systemic insecticides are imidacloprid, acephate, and dinotefuran. Other insecticides are contact, meaning they only kill the insects they touch. These are safer for the environment, but they may require more frequent applications. Some examples of contact insecticides are insecticidal soap, neem oil, and garlic spray.

Plant internodes are the portions of the stem between two successive nodes. Nodes are the points on the stem where leaves, branches, buds or aerial roots can grow. Internodes help in transporting water, hormones and food from node to node and also in increasing the height of the plant. The length of the internodes can vary depending on the species of plant and the environmental conditions. Some plants have short internodes and dense foliage, while others have long internodes and sparse leaves.

Issaisho is a Japanese term that means "one year" and refers to a variety of plants that blossom and come to fruition in the same year. Some of these plants include Momo (peach), Sakura (Japanese Cherry), and Ume (Japanese Apricot). Issaisho is also used to describe the cultivation of bonsai trees from these plants, which can be grown in pots and shaped in different styles. Issaisho bonsai are appreciated for their seasonal beauty and fragrance.

Jidai is a Japanese word that means age and it is used to describe the condition of a bonsai tree that has been cultivated for a long time. The age of a bonsai tree can be seen in its thickness, bark, shape and color. A bonsai tree with good jidai shows an old and refined appearance that reflects the years of care and skill that went into growing it. Jidai is also related to other concepts such as koshoku (antique look) and sabi (elegant simplicity) that are used to appreciate the beauty of nature in water, stone and other elements. Jidai is one of the aspects that makes bonsai an art form and a way of expressing the harmony between humans and nature.

A jiita is a wooden board or sheet that is used to display bonsai, especially those with flowers or fruits. It is a type of flat table that enhances the beauty and harmony of the bonsai and its pot. A jiita can have various shapes, such as elliptical, hexagonal or gourd-like. It is usually made from natural wood that has knots, grains or burls, and it is varnished to highlight its texture and color. A jiita is considered a traditional and elegant way of presenting bonsai in Japan.

Jin is a bonsai deadwood technique used on branches or the top of the trunk (the "leader"). A jin is meant to show age, or show that the tree has had a struggle to survive. Jins are created in nature when wind, lightning, or other adversity kills the leader or a branch further down the tree. To create a jin, you need to remove the bark from the branch, leaving the white wood underneath exposed. This white wood will eventually turn brown and create a realistic looking trunk. You can use jin pliers, graving tools and lime sulfur to create and protect your jin. Jin is especially suitable for conifers such as junipers and spruces, but can also be applied to other types of trees if done carefully.

The Japanese term "jukan" means "heavy feeling" or "massive" in terms of the apex of a bonsai. It is one of the three types of apexes, along with "chukan" (medium feeling) and "keikan" (light feeling). The jukan or formal upright style has an apex that is directly over the center of the trunk's entry into the soil. The branches are symmetrical and evenly spaced, and the apex is broad and dome-shaped. This style is suitable for coniferous trees that have a straight and vertical trunk, such as pines and spruces. It is characterized by a thick and dense foliage mass that gives the impression of weight and stability. The jukan apex is often used for coniferous trees, such as pines and junipers, that have a strong trunk and branches.

The term "jusei" means the growth or vigor of a tree, indicating its state of development. It is also called "momentum of the tree's spirit". Jusei applies to bonsai as a way of evaluating the quality and health of a tree, based on its branches, leaves, trunks and roots. Different tree species have different requirements for their cultivation, training and care, so bonsai tree identification is crucial to maintain good jusei. Jusei also refers to the properties of trees concerning their growth speed, shape, resistance to pollution and suitability for bonsai.

The term "Jushin" means the top of the tree in bonsai art. It is also called "atama" (head of the tree) or "shin" (apex of a tree). The jushin is an important element in creating a balanced and harmonious bonsai shape. It should fit in with the surroundings and the overall style of the tree. The jushin can be formed by pruning, wiring, or bending the branches and trunk of the bonsai.

A "Kaede" is a Japanese word that refers to a type of maple tree that belongs to the Acer genus of the Aceraceae family. Kaede trees have leaves with three notches, while another type of maple tree, called "Momiji", has leaves with five deep notches. Kaede trees are often used in the art of bonsai, which is the practice of growing miniature trees in pots. Kaede bonsai are prized for their adaptability to different climates and their beautiful spring and fall colors. Kaede bonsai pots are usually imported from Japan and come in various shapes, sizes, glazes and artists. Some of the famous kaede bonsai pot makers are Koyo, Yamaaki, Ikkou and Bigei.

A "Kanjohakuhi" is a Japanese term that means air-layering, a technique of developing roots by peeling bark off a trunk. The process involves rooting and taking the skin completely off the area from where the peeling is done  . This technique can be used to create new bonsai material from an already mature tree, or to improve the nebari (root flare) of an existing bonsai. It can also be used to propagate rare or difficult-to-root species of plants.

Air-layering is usually done in spring or early summer, when the tree is actively growing. A strip of bark is removed from a branch or trunk, exposing the cambium layer. The wound is treated with rooting hormone and wrapped with moist sphagnum moss. The moss is then covered with plastic wrap or foil to keep it moist and prevent infection. After a few months, roots will start to grow from the cut edge and into the moss. The branch can then be cut off below the roots and potted as a new plant.

A "Kanreisha" is a shade cloth that is used to protect plants from direct sunlight or frost. It is a large and wide cloth that has been traditionally used for farming and cultivating seedlings for gardening . In bonsai, a Kanreisha can be used to cover shelves and the tops of trees, especially in summer and winter seasons. In tropical and sub-tropical areas, a Kanreisha can also help prevent damage from tropical storms, but it should be removed in advance if the wind is too strong.

Kansui is a Japanese term for watering of plants, especially bonsai. It is also called mizukake, mizukure or mizuyari. Watering is an essential skill for bonsai care, as it replenishes the water that is lost from the soil and the leaves due to evaporation and transpiration. Watering also helps to flush out excess salts and fertilizers from the soil, and to maintain a healthy balance of moisture and air in the root zone.

Watering bonsai requires attention to the type, size, shape and material of the pot, the type, quality and composition of the soil, the species, age and health of the tree, the season, weather and climate conditions, and the location and environment of the bonsai. There is no fixed rule or schedule for watering bonsai, as each tree and situation is different. The best way to determine when to water is to check the soil moisture by feeling it with a finger or using a moisture meter. The soil should be slightly moist, but not wet or dry.

Watering bonsai should be done with a gentle spray nozzle or a watering can with a fine rose attachment. The water should be at room temperature or slightly warmer, and free of chlorine and other chemicals. The water should be applied evenly over the entire surface of the soil, until it drains out of the holes at the bottom of the pot. The excess water should be removed from the tray or saucer under the pot, to prevent root rot. Watering should be done in the morning or evening, avoiding the hottest part of the day.

Watering bonsai is not only a practical task, but also an artistic one. It is a way of communicating with the tree, observing its condition and needs, and creating a harmonious relationship between the tree, the pot and the environment. Watering bonsai is also a way of expressing one's appreciation and respect for nature and its beauty.

Kanuma soil is a type of soil that is mainly used for bonsai trees, especially those that prefer acidic conditions. It is derived from weathered volcanic pumice stone that is mined, processed and baked in the Kanuma region of Japan. Kanuma soil has the following characteristics: 

• It is granular, clay-like and pale yellow in color. 
• It is very porous, lightweight and rich in silicon dioxide. 
• It has good water retention, drainage and aeration properties. 
• It has a moderately acidic pH of around 5.5.

Kanuma soil is suitable for succulents that can tolerate or benefit from acidic soil, such as azaleas, camellias, gardenias and some cacti. However, it should not be used alone, but mixed with other components such as coarse sand, gravel and potting soil to provide a more balanced and stable medium for the succulents.

A "Kanumatsuchi" is a type of soil for bonsai, which is a very light and porous rock of volcanic andesite quality. It is a substance that erupted from the central crater of Mt. Akagi in Gunma Prefecture, Japan, and is found in areas from Tochigi Prefecture to the seashore of Ibaraki Prefecture. The name Kanumatsuchi comes from Kanuma, a region where thick layers of this rock are found. Kanumatsuchi has many capillary holes on the surface of the grains, which make it excellent for air permeability and drainage capabilities. It is suitable for bonsai plants that prefer acidic soil, such as azaleas and camellias.

Karai is a term that means the limited volume and number of times water and fertilizer are given to trees, especially bonsai. It is a technique to control the growth and shape of the bonsai by creating a balance between the nutrients and the water in the soil. Karai is also related to the concept of "wabi-sabi", which is the aesthetic appreciation of imperfection and transience in nature. By applying karai, bonsai artists can create a miniature representation of the natural beauty and harmony of trees.

Karamine is a term used in bonsai art to describe roots that are intertwined with each other. It means "roots are tangled together" in Japanese. Karamine is considered undesirable for the aesthetic appearance of the bonsai, as it makes the nebari (visible roots of a tree) look messy and unnatural. Therefore, karamine roots are usually untangled or cut off during repotting.

"Karin" is the Japanese name for the Chinese or Japanese quince, which is a deciduous tree that belongs to the rose family. It is native to China, but was introduced to Japan centuries ago. It has pink or white flowers that bloom in spring, along with green leaves that turn yellow or red in autumn. The fruit is large, yellow, and pear-shaped, with a strong fragrance and a sour taste. The fruit cannot be eaten raw, but can be used to make liqueur, tea, or honey-preserved slices. The Japanese quince is often planted as an ornamental tree in gardens or parks, where it attracts birds and insects with its colorful flowers and fruit.

A "Karusu" is a Japanese word that means callus in English. It refers to the callous that forms around the edge of wounds on trees, such as when branches are cut or air layered. Karusu helps heal the wounds and prevent infections or rotting. Karusu can also be used to create interesting shapes or features on the bonsai trunk or branches, such as knobs or scars. Karusu is considered a sign of good care and technique in bonsai art.

Kataeda is a Japanese term that refers to branches of a trunk concentrated on one side while others are lacking on the other. This phenomenon is usually seen in windswept bonsai styles, where the tree is shaped by the strong wind direction. Kataeda can also result from natural damage or pruning. Kataeda can create a sense of movement and drama in a bonsai, but it can also make the tree look unnatural and unbalanced if not done properly. Therefore, it is important to consider the harmony and grace of the tree shape when creating or maintaining a kataeda bonsai.

Katamaru is a Japanese term that means hardening a tree. It refers to the process of lignification, which is the transformation of fleshy shoots into woody branches. Katamaru occurs when the new buds and leaves have attained their full growth and stop expanding. Katamaru is related to bonsai trees because it affects the shape and structure of the tree, as well as its ability to respond to pruning and wiring. Bonsai artists need to be aware of the katamaru stage of their trees, as it determines the optimal time and technique for styling and maintenance.

Katane is a term that describes a tree with roots growing only on one side of its trunk. This creates an unbalanced and insecure appearance that detracts from the aesthetic harmony of the tree. Moreover, the side of the trunk that lacks roots may suffer from stunted growth and weak branches. To correct this problem, one can perform root grafting on the trunk to create a more symmetrical and healthy root system.

Kawarigi is a Japanese term that refers to an eccentric or unusual tree that does not conform to the typical bonsai styles or categories. It is a tree with a very difficult trunk shape, such as twisted, contorted, or irregular. Kawarigi trees are often admired for their uniqueness and natural beauty, as they express the hardships and challenges that the tree has faced in its life. Kawarigi trees are rare and hard to find, and require a lot of skill and creativity to cultivate and display.

The "keikan" type of apex is a technique used to create a natural-looking and rounded crown on a bonsai tree, especially in the informal upright and slant styles. It involves bending a branch at the top of the trunk to one side, and developing an apex from a small branch at the base of the bend. The end of the bent branch is used as one of the top primary branches, and part of the secondary branches near the bend are trained as branches that create the apex. This way, the apex fills out empty spaces and balances the canopy. This technique is common in Japan and works best with junipers.

Keiseiso is a Japanese term that refers to the cambium, which is a structure of dividing tissue that promotes growth of stems and roots. It is located in a vascular bundle between the xylem and the phloem, which are the tissues that transport water and nutrients in plants.

The Keyaki tree, also known as Zelkova serrata, is a species of the genus Zelkova native to Japan, Korea, eastern China and Taiwan. It is often grown as an ornamental tree, and used in bonsai. The wood of the Keyaki tree is highly prized by Japanese woodworkers for its beautiful grain, durability and resistance to rot. It is used to make furniture, chests, boxes, clogs and other items. The Keyaki tree is also a symbol of some Japanese cities and prefectures, and one of the oldest and largest specimens is the Great Zelkova Nomo in Osaka, Japan.

The Kikieda, or "focal point" of a bonsai tree, is the area where the trunk and the main branches form a harmonious curve. The Kikieda is considered the most important feature of a bonsai, as it reflects the natural beauty and balance of the tree. The Kikieda should be clearly visible from the front view of the bonsai, and should not be obscured by foliage or other elements. The Kikieda should also be proportional to the size and shape of the bonsai, and should not be too thick or thin. A well-defined Kikieda can enhance the aesthetic appeal and artistic expression of a bonsai.

The term "Kiri-eda" means a branch that crosses the trunk. This is usually considered a design mistake, as it disrupts the harmony and balance of the tree. However, some bonsai artists may use this technique to create a unique or dramatic effect, such as in the raft form (Ikadabuki) or the windswept form (Fukinagashi).

Kirikomi is a term used in bonsai to refer to the act of cutting or severing a branch. It is one of the ways to shape a tree and is similar to sentei, which means trimming of a tree. Kirikomi is often done to reduce the size of a branch, create a more compact silhouette, or remove unwanted growth. Kirikomi can be done on any type of bonsai, but it is especially important for deciduous trees that tend to produce long and thin branches. Kirikomi should be done with sharp and clean tools to avoid damaging the tree or causing infections. Kirikomi can also be combined with other techniques such as wiring, pruning, or defoliation to achieve the desired shape and style of the bonsai.

Kirimodoshi is a technique for cutting back branches in bonsai. It is used to reduce the length of branches, improve the shape of the tree, and promote new growth. Kirimodoshi is also used in propagation of plants by cuttings and grafting, where a branch to be used for rooting is cut diagonally at the base once and on the opposite side to create a V-shaped wedge.

A quick drying sealant and grafting aid contains insecticides and fungicides and forms a smooth, dark green cover that remains quite flexible. As the callus forms, the paste drops off gradually without leaving marks.

Kobanbachi is a Japanese term for a bonsai pot that has an oval or elliptical shape. Kobanbachi pots are best suited for trees that have a gentle shape, such as slim single-trunk trees or group-planted Japanese maples. Kobanbachi pots can also be used for fruit-bearing trees, such as dwarf apples, that need more depth. Kobanbachi pots are also known as Daenbachi pots, which means oval pots.

"Kokejun" refers to the balance and harmony of the tree's shape, as well as the visual weight and density of the foliage. A bonsai tree with a good kokejun has a natural and elegant appearance, and does not look lopsided or uneven. Kokejun is one of the important aesthetic principles of bonsai art, and it requires careful pruning and wiring to achieve.

Koshidaka is a Japanese term that refers to the distance between the base of the tree and the first branch in bonsai. It is often seen in trunks of literati style, which is a minimalist and elegant form of bonsai that emphasizes the line and movement of the trunk. Koshidaka can also mean a tree with a high waist, which is not desirable in most bonsai styles. A high waist can make the tree look unbalanced and unnatural. Koshidaka can be avoided by selecting a suitable material, pruning the lower branches, or grafting new branches near the base.

Koshimizu is a method of watering bonsai by dipping the pot into a water-filled basin. It is also called koshimizu kansui. It is effective in preventing the bonsai pot from suffering a dearth of water in the summer. Some trees particularly need this method, such as azaleas, maples, and junipers. Koshimizu helps to keep the soil moist and prevent the roots from drying out. It also washes away excess fertilizer and salt from the soil. Koshimizu should be done in the morning or evening, when the temperature is cooler. The pot should be submerged until bubbles stop rising from the soil, and then lifted and drained well.

Kuitsuki Eda is a Japanese term for a type of branch that is often seen in bonsai trees. It means a branch that is shorter than the others and looks like it is attached to the trunk. Kuitsuki Eda branches are common in old and large trees, but not in young and healthy ones. They usually grow from the places where lower branches have been cut or fallen off. They add a natural and realistic touch to the bonsai tree, especially in the literati style that has a thin trunk and no lower branches.

Kuromatsu is the Japanese name for the black pine (Pinus thunbergii), which is a popular species of bonsai. Kuromatsu has long and rigid needles that are dark green in color, and thick and plated bark that gives it a powerful and masculine appearance. Kuromatsu is also known for producing many buds on each branch, which allows for creative shaping and styling. Kuromatsu is a hardy and adaptable tree that can grow in full sun or partial shade, depending on the environment. Kuromatsu requires careful watering, fertilizing, pruning, wiring, and pest control to maintain its health and beauty as a bonsai.

The Japanese term "kusamono" (草物) means "something made of/from grass" and is used to refer to a type of botanical art that involves planting wild grasses and flowers in pots or trays. Kusamono can be displayed alone or as a companion to bonsai trees, and they reflect the seasons or places where the plants are found.

Kyokuzuke is a technique of wiring a trunk or branch of a bonsai tree to create an elegant shape. It is also known as Moyozuke, which means making patterns. Kyokuzuke is often used to bend the trunk or branch in a gentle curve or a zigzag pattern, depending on the style and the species of the tree. Kyokuzuke can enhance the appearance and the movement of the bonsai, as well as correct any flaws or defects in the natural growth. Kyokuzuke requires careful attention to avoid damaging the bark or the cambium layer of the tree, which are essential for its health and growth.

Lateral roots are un-tapered, rope-like roots that grow outward from the main root and form a network to support the tree. They also help the tree to absorb water and nutrients from the soil. Lateral roots can grow very long and wide, sometimes reaching two to three times the size of the tree's crown. Lateral roots are formed by the pericycle cells, which are located inside the endodermis layer of the root. The pericycle cells develop into lateral root primordia (LRP), which then break through the outer layers of the root and grow into the soil. Lateral roots are common and abundant in many tree species, such as oaks, walnuts, hickories, black gum, sassafras, sweet gum, Japanese pagoda, butternut, pines and hornbeam.

Lava rock is a type of volcanic rock that is very lightweight and has excellent drainage properties. It is also very inert, so it will not affect the pH of your soil mix. Lava rock is widely used for bonsai, succulents, and other ornamental plants for its benefits as a soil conditioner. It helps to improve soil structure, drainage, airflow, and moisture retention. Lava rock can also be used as a decorative element for your bonsai pots or trays.

See Air Layering.

The leader of a tree is the main stem or trunk that grows vertically from the base to the top. The leader is responsible for the overall shape and height of the tree, and it usually has the largest diameter and the most growth rings. The leader may be influenced by environmental factors such as wind, light, gravity, and pruning. Some trees have a single leader, while others have multiple leaders or co-dominant stems.

Lime sulfur is a chemical substance that has various applications for bonsai. It can be used to preserve and bleach the deadwood areas of a bonsai, such as jin or shari, giving them a white and aged look. It can also be used as an insecticide or fungicide to control pests and diseases that may affect the bonsai. Lime sulfur should be applied carefully, as it has a strong smell and can cause irritation to the skin and eyes. It should be diluted with water and sprayed or brushed on the bonsai, avoiding contact with the living parts of the tree or the soil.

Loam is a type of soil that consists of sand, silt, and clay in balanced proportions. Loam is considered ideal for gardening and agriculture because it retains nutrients and moisture well, but also allows excess water to drain. Loam also contains humus, which is organic matter that improves soil fertility and structure. Loam soils can vary in texture and composition, depending on the ratio of sand, silt, and clay particles.

A Meatari is a small bud that sprouts from a place that would not normally produce buds, such as the trunk or an old branch. It is often a result of mekiri or metsumi, which are techniques of bud trimming to control the growth and shape of pine trees. Meatari buds can be useful for creating new branches, filling gaps, or adding interest to a bonsai design. However, they can also be undesirable if they appear in unwanted places or disrupt the balance of the tree. In that case, they can be removed by pinching or cutting them off.

Mekiri is a bonsai technique of trimming new buds to balance the strength of bud growth in pine trees, such as kuromatsu (Japanese Black Pine). Mekiri is usually done in summer, after the spring growth has hardened off. By removing the strong buds, mekiri allows the weaker buds to develop and create a more compact and dense foliage. Mekiri also helps to reduce the needle length and improve the ramification of the branches. Mekiri is not a uniform process and varies depending on the species of pine, the health of the tree, and the desired style. Mekiri should be done with care and precision, using sharp scissors or tweezers. Mekiri is an essential technique for maintaining the health and beauty of pine bonsai.

Meokoshi is a technical term for hariganekake wiring work, which is a technique used to shape the branches of evergreen coniferous bonsai trees, such as pines . Meokoshi involves picking a bud at the tip of a branch with wires and bending it to create a dynamic and attractive appearance. Meokoshi is often used to create the formal upright style bonsai, or chokkan, which has a straight trunk and symmetrical branches.

Meosae is a term used in bonsai art to describe the process of wiring new buds that emerge in early spring and bending them downward. This technique is important for shaping the tree form, especially for young trees that grow vigorously. Meosae is related to bonsai because it helps create a natural and balanced appearance for the miniature trees. Bonsai artists use meosae to control the direction and angle of the branches and to adjust the density and distribution of the foliage.

The mesophyll is the middle layer of cells in a leaf, located between the upper and lower epidermis. It contains many chloroplasts, which are the organelles that perform photosynthesis in plants. The mesophyll is divided into two types of cells: palisade parenchyma and spongy parenchyma. Palisade parenchyma cells are columnar and tightly packed, and they absorb most of the sunlight that reaches the leaf. Spongy parenchyma cells are irregular and loosely arranged, and they allow gas exchange between the leaf and the atmosphere through the stomata. Both types of cells contain chloroplasts, but palisade parenchyma cells have more than spongy parenchyma cells.

Metsugi is a Japanese word that means grafting of buds of a tree into branches and trunks. It is a technique used in bonsai to improve the appearance and health of the tree. Metsugi is usually done in late summer or early autumn, when the buds are dormant. The scion, or the bud to be grafted, is cut from a donor tree of the same species or a compatible one. The stock, or the branch or trunk to receive the graft, is cut or peeled to expose the cambium layer. The scion is then inserted into the stock and secured with tape or wire. The graft should be kept moist and protected from direct sunlight until it heals and forms a union with the stock.

Metsumi is a traditional Japanese technique of applying a thin layer of wax or resin to the buds of certain trees, such as cherry, plum, or maple. The purpose of metsumi is to protect the buds from frost damage, pests, and diseases, and to enhance their appearance and fragrance. Metsumi is usually done in late winter or early spring, before the buds start to swell and open. The wax or resin is melted and applied with a brush or a cloth, covering the entire bud. Metsumi can also be used to shape the buds into desired forms, such as round, oval, or pointed. Metsumi is considered an art form that requires skill and patience, and it is often practiced by bonsai enthusiasts and gardeners who appreciate the beauty and symbolism of flowering trees.

Mezame is a Japanese term that means "awakening" or "emergence". In relation to bonsai, it refers to the process of bringing a dormant tree back to life after a period of cold or dry conditions. Mezame is usually done in early spring, when the buds start to swell and the sap begins to flow. Mezame involves gradually exposing the tree to more light, water and fertilizer, as well as pruning and wiring if needed. Mezame is important for the health and vigor of the bonsai, as well as for preparing it for the flowering season.

Midoritsumi is a Japanese term that literally means "green picking". It is a technique of pruning fresh buds that have not yet developed leaves on pine trees, especially the Japanese Black Pine, Japanese Red Pine and Japanese White Pine. This technique is usually done in early spring to control the growth and shape of the branches and prevent unwanted wheel-like branches from forming. Midoritsumi helps to create a balanced and harmonious bonsai tree.

Miginagare is a Japanese term that means "right flow" in the context of bonsai. It refers to the direction of the trunk and branches that curve to the right, creating a sense of movement and harmony. Miginagare is one of the styles of bonsai that can be appreciated for its natural beauty and balance . Hidarinagare is the opposite term, meaning "left flow".

Mikihada is a Japanese term that means trunk surface or bark of a tree. It is an important aspect of bonsai appreciation, as it reflects the age and quality of the tree. The mikihada of a bonsai tree can vary depending on the species, the environment, and the care given by the bonsai artist. Some bonsai trees have smooth and thin bark, while others have rough and thick bark. Some bonsai trees develop cracks, fissures, or flakes on their bark, which can add character and interest to the tree. The mikihada of a bonsai tree can also change color over time, becoming darker or lighter.

In relation to bonsai, mikihada is one of the factors that determine the style and shape of the tree. For example, a bonsai tree with a curved and twisted trunk may have a more dynamic mikihada than a straight and upright trunk. A bonsai tree with a thick and rough bark may have a more masculine appearance than a thin and smooth bark. A bonsai tree with a colorful and textured bark may have a more attractive appearance than a dull and plain bark.

Mikimoyo is a Japanese term that literally means trunk patterns. It refers to the curve line of a trunk that forms the basis of a tree form. There are two types of Mikimoyo: the natural curve and the artificial one. The natural curve is the result of the tree's growth in response to environmental factors, such as wind, sunlight, gravity, etc. The artificial curve is the result of the bonsai artist's manipulation of the trunk, such as wiring, bending, pruning, etc. The Mikimoyo is an important element in creating a harmonious and aesthetic bonsai design.

Misho is the Japanese term for growing a bonsai tree from a seed. It is a very rewarding but also challenging process that requires patience and skill. Misho allows you to have full control over your bonsai tree from the beginning and to shape it according to your preference. However, it also takes a long time before you can start styling your bonsai tree, usually at least three years. Misho is suitable for beginners who want to learn the basics of bonsai cultivation and who are not in a hurry to see the results. To grow a bonsai tree from a seed, you need to obtain seeds from a normal tree, either by collecting them locally or by buying them online. You also need to stratify the seeds if they are not from your climate or season, which means simulating the cold period they need to germinate. Then you need to sow the seeds in a suitable soil mix and keep them moist and warm until they sprout. After that, you need to care for the seedlings by watering, fertilizing, pruning and repotting them regularly until they are ready for styling.

Miyama kaido is a Japanese term that refers to a group of wild crab apple trees that belong to the Malus genus and the Rosaceae family. These trees are native to the mountainous regions of Japan, from Hokkaido to central Honshu. They have small, fragrant white or pink flowers that bloom in spring, followed by red or yellow fruits that are edible but sour. Miyama kaido is often used as a bonsai material because of its attractive bark, foliage and flowers. It can be trained in various styles, such as informal upright, slanting, cascade or forest. Miyama kaido bonsai requires full sun, regular watering and pruning, and protection from frost.

Mizugire is a Japanese term that literally means "termination of water supply". It refers to the situation when a bonsai pot does not have enough water, which can cause the leaves to wither or fall and the branches to die. Mizugire can also kill the tree itself if not corrected in time. To prevent Mizugire, it is important to water the bonsai regularly and check the soil moisture. Some factors that can increase the risk of Mizugire are high temperatures, low humidity, strong winds, and small pots.

Mizunuke is a term used in bonsai to describe the process of water drainage from the bottom of a pot. It is also known as mizuhake. Mizunuke is important for the health and growth of the bonsai tree, as it allows oxygen to reach the roots after the soil particles dry up. Mizunuke depends on the type and quality of the soil, as well as the size and number of holes in the pot. Poor mizunuke can lead to mizugire, which is the termination of water supply and can cause branches to die or leaves to fall.

Mizusui is a Japanese term that means "living portion" or "live vein" in relation to bonsai. It refers to the living parts of a trunk on shimpaku (Sargent's juniper) and tosho (Japanese needle juniper) trees that have bleached and withered tree tops or branches . Mizusui is important for the health and survival of these trees, as it carries water and nutrients from the roots to the foliage.

Mizuyari is a Japanese word that means watering, the most important process to grow a bonsai tree. Water supply is essential for a bonsai tree that is grown in a limited space of a pot. Many people say it takes three years to attain the watering technique. There is no perfect manual for watering. Growers are required to pay full attention to various aspects, such as the season, weather, temperature, humidity, soil condition, and tree species.

Mochikomi is a Japanese term that refers to the years of cultivation of a bonsai tree in a pot. It indicates the level of care, love and training that a bonsai artist has invested in their creation. Mochikomi is important for the aesthetic and historical value of a bonsai, as well as for its health and vigor. A bonsai with a long mochikomi usually has an elegant and natural appearance that reflects the harmony between nature and art.

Mochikuzusu is a Japanese term that means degrading in relation to bonsai. It refers to a tree that grows too much, peaks out as bonsai, and becomes unable to maintain its tree shape. Mochikuzusu also means that a bonsai tree's shape will deteriorate after branches or other key elements are broken  . This is a phenomenon that bonsai artists try to avoid by careful pruning and wiring.

Mokkobachi is a Japanese term that means a circular-shaped pot with a petal-shaped edge. It looks like a flower petal of boke or mokko, which are Japanese names for the quince plant. Mokkobachi pots are suitable for kabudachi or takan, which are types of bonsai trees with multiple trunks or fruit-bearing branches.

Momiji is a Japanese word that means autumn leaves or maple. It is also the name of a type of Japanese maple tree (Acer palmatum) that is often used as a bonsai material. Momiji bonsai are prized for their beautiful foliage that changes color in the fall, from green to yellow, orange, red, or purple. Momiji bonsai are also known as yamamomiji, which means mountain maple, because they are native to the mountainous regions of Japan. Momiji bonsai require partial shade, good drainage, and regular pruning to maintain their shape and health.

Moss is a common feature of bonsai trees, as it can enhance their aesthetic appeal and provide some benefits to their health. Moss can help to keep the soil moist, prevent erosion, and create a natural-looking environment for the tree. Moss can also give a sense of age and maturity to a bonsai tree, as it mimics the appearance of trees in nature. However, moss can also pose some dangers to bonsai trees, such as competing for nutrients, harboring pests, and covering the roots. Therefore, moss should be used with care and moderation, and should be trimmed and cleaned regularly. Moss can be collected from various sources, such as rooftops, sidewalks, or tree barks, or it can be cultivated from spores or dried moss. Moss should be planted on a thin layer of organic soil that can retain moisture and nutrients. Moss should also be kept out of direct sunlight, as it can dry out and die.

Motoboso is a Japanese term that refers to the slimness of the knags or knots of the trunks and branches of a tree. In bonsai, motoboso is considered undesirable because it gives a sense of instability and weakness to the tree. Bonsai artists prefer thicker and stronger knags that show age and character. Motoboso is often seen in young or immature trees that have not developed enough girth or taper.

Bonsai muck is a sticky substance that is used to hold bonsai soil on slabs, rocks, or other unconventional containers. It helps to keep the roots of the bonsai tree in place and to retain moisture. Bonsai muck can be made from various ingredients, such as peat moss, akadama dust, sphagnum moss, clay, or keto. Different recipes may have different proportions and consistencies, depending on the desired effect and the type of planting. Bonsai muck can be applied by hand or with a spatula, and it usually hardens after drying

Muro is a term that refers to facilities to protect bonsai trees against damage from frost, freezing or snow in the winter season. A prefabricated house, plastic greenhouse or any other closed chamber is fine for a muro, as long as it can maintain a suitable temperature and humidity for the bonsai. Muro are especially important for tropical and semi-tropical bonsai, which cannot tolerate low temperatures. Some bonsai enthusiasts in Chicago use muro to keep their bonsai alive during the harsh winters.

A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a fungus and a plant, in which the fungus colonizes the plant's root system and helps it absorb water and nutrients from the soil, while the plant provides the fungus with organic molecules such as sugars produced by photosynthesis. The term mycorrhiza comes from the Greek words for "fungus" and "root". There are different types of mycorrhiza, depending on where the fungus grows on or inside the plant root. The most common type is the arbuscular mycorrhiza, which is found in about 70% of plant species, including many crops such as wheat and rice. Mycorrhiza play important roles in plant nutrition, soil biology, and soil chemistry, and are also involved in the evolution and ecology of plants.

N-P-K stands for nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which are the three primary nutrients that plants need to grow. The numbers on a fertilizer label indicate the percentage of each nutrient in the product by weight. For example, a fertilizer with an N-P-K ratio of 10-10-10 contains 10% nitrogen, 10% phosphorus, and 10% potassium. Nitrogen promotes leaf growth and green color, phosphorus supports root development and flowering, and potassium enhances plant health and disease resistance.

Nagare is a Japanese term that means "flow" or "stream."  It refers to a style of bonsai that depicts a tree growing on a slope or a cliff, leaning in the direction of the wind or water erosion. The trunk and branches of a nagare bonsai are curved and slanted, creating a sense of movement and dynamism. Nagare bonsai can be created from various tree species, such as junipers, pines, maples, and azaleas. The pot used for a nagare bonsai should be shallow and elongated, matching the direction of the trunk. The soil should also be sloped to enhance the impression of a natural landscape.

Nearai refers to a technique of removing all the soil from the roots of the plant during repotting, and displaying them on a flat surface. The purpose of this technique is to show the beauty and intricacy of the roots, which can be washed to enhance their appearance. Nearai can be applied to single plants or mixed plantings, and it is considered a form of accent plant that complements the main bonsai display.

According to the website Kusamono Gardens, nearai refers to "a single plant or mixed plantings that have been grown in pots and when the pot is full of roots it is removed and displayed on a flat container. The purpose of this form is to show the roots which can be washed to expose them for a more dramatic effect." Nearai originated from the nearai bonsai method, which is an ancient art form that involves growing plants so compactly that they form a tight ball of roots and soil when removed from the pot. Nearai is different from kokedama, which is another Japanese term that means "moss ball" and involves wrapping the root ball in moss and suspending it from a string or placing it on a tray.

Nebari is a term used in Japanese bonsai cultivation that refers to the visible portion of the roots as they emerge from the soil line and spread out over the surface of the soil. The word “nebari” literally translates to “root spread” or “root flare” in Japanese, highlighting its importance in bonsai aesthetics. A strong nebari is crucial in bonsai cultivation since it provides stability to the tree’s trunk while also enhancing its aesthetic appeal. A strong nebari indicates good health, balance, and harmony between the roots and branches. It also adds dimensionality to tree design by creating an impression that it has been growing in nature for many years. There are different methods to create a good nebari on bonsai trees, such as regular root pruning, placing the tree on a stone, or applying a tourniquet technique. These methods aim to stimulate the growth of sideward or horizontal roots that form a natural-looking root flare. A well-developed nebari can take years or even decades to achieve fully, depending on the species and age of the tree.

Nebuse is a root trimming technique that is used to create new bonsai material from an existing tree. It involves cutting a root and burying it in the ground to sprout new shoots. Nebuse is suitable for some species of plants, such as Japanese quinces, mossmin, hall crabapple and roses. It is especially good for making small bonsai pieces.

A needle of a tree is a type of leaf that is adapted to cold and dry climates. Unlike broad leaves, needles have a small surface area and a thick cuticle that reduce water loss. Needles also contain antifreeze chemicals that prevent them from freezing in low temperatures. Some trees, such as pines, spruces and firs, have needles all year round and are called evergreens. Other trees, such as larches, have needles that change color and fall off in autumn and are called deciduous.

Neem oil is a type of horticultural oil that comes from the seeds of the neem tree (Azadirachta indica). Horticultural oils are natural oils that are used to control pests, mites, and some diseases on plants. Neem oil contains azadirachtin, a compound that has insecticidal, antifungal, antiseptic and antihistamine properties, which makes it more effective than other horticultural oils in killing and repelling insects. Neem oil can be used as an all-season oil, meaning it can be applied both when plants are dormant and when they are in leaf. However, neem oil should be used with caution, as it can cause phytotoxicity (plant injury) if applied at high concentrations, under high temperatures, or on sensitive plants. Neem oil is also nonselective, meaning it can harm beneficial insects as well as pests. Therefore, neem oil should be used only when needed and according to the label instructions. Neem oil also contains other fatty acids and essential oils that have beneficial effects on the skin and hair. Neem oil can be used to treat skin conditions such as acne, eczema, psoriasis, scabies, ringworm and lice. Neem oil can also be used to moisturize, nourish and protect the skin from environmental damage.

Negusare is a term that refers to the damage or withering of the roots of a bonsai tree due to changes in conditions, such as temperature, humidity, or soil moisture. Negusare can cause the roots to lose their function and affect the health and appearance of the tree. Negusare can be prevented by paying attention to the condition of each tree and watering them appropriately.

Nemizu is a Japanese term that means watering a bonsai tree at its root, but not at its crown. It is used in contrast to hamizu, which means moistening leaves with water. Nemizu is important for providing moisture and nutrients to the soil and the roots of the bonsai, while hamizu is helpful for adjusting the temperature and humidity of the leaves. Both nemizu and hamizu are essential for maintaining the health and beauty of bonsai trees.

The Japanese term nemurime means a "sleeping bud."  it refers to a bud that, while it grows in the late fall, it will not grow into a leaf the following spring. Such a phenomenon will occur in a tree that cannot obtain sufficient sunlight or ventilation, or an aged one that has lost its vigor. Nemurime is used in contrast with Mezame, which means a bud that will open in the following spring.

Nesabaki is a procedure that involves trimming and arranging the roots of a bonsai plant when it is replanted, potted or repotted. It is especially important for plants that have been collected from the mountains, as they may have long, thick or damaged roots that need to be reduced or removed. Nesabaki helps to improve the health, appearance and stability of the bonsai plant by creating a compact and balanced root system that fits well in the pot. Nesabaki also allows the plant to absorb water and nutrients more efficiently and prevents root rot or decay.

Netsuchi is a Japanese term that means the dirt that has been adhering closely to the roots of a bonsai tree since they underwent growth  . It is considered a sign of the tree's age and quality, and it is often preserved when repotting the bonsai . Netsuchi can also enhance the appearance of the nebari, which is the condition of the roots visible out of the surface of the soil.

The Japanese term "Netsugi" means a grafted. It is a technique used to improve the appearance of the visible roots of a tree, by grafting new roots in parts where they are insufficient. Netsugi is also known as root grafting. It can enhance the nebari (the surface root spread) of a bonsai, which is an important factor for its aesthetic value.

Nibamme is a Japanese term that means "a second bud" and it mainly refers to the phenomenon of kuromatsu (Japanese pine trees) producing a second bud after the first one has been trimmed. This second bud has a shorter axis and leaves than the first one and it usually occurs only once a year. Nibamme is considered desirable for bonsai because it creates more compact and dense foliage.

Nikumaki is a Japanese term that means "meat roll" or "beef roll". It is usually used to refer to a dish of thinly sliced beef wrapped around vegetables and marinated in a teriyaki sauce. However, in relation to bonsai, nikumaki is a technique of wrapping the roots of a tree with moss and soil to keep them moist and healthy. This technique is especially useful for trees that are sensitive to dryness or transplanting stress, such as maples and azaleas. Nikumaki can also help create a more compact root ball and improve the appearance of the nebari (the surface roots).

Nitrogen is a vital element for plants, as it is a component of many molecules and structures that are essential for plant growth and development. Plants can absorb nitrogen from the soil in two forms: nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+). However, these forms of nitrogen are often scarce in natural and agricultural ecosystems, and plants have to cope with various abiotic stresses that affect their nitrogen uptake and metabolism. Some of these stresses include nutrient deficiencies, unfavorable pH, salinity, drought, and heavy metal toxicity. Plants have evolved different strategies to manage nitrogen and adapt to these stressors, such as regulating the expression and activity of nitrogen transporters, modifying the root architecture, and altering the nitrogen assimilation pathways. Nitrogen is therefore not only a key nutrient for plant productivity, but also a modulator of plant responses to abiotic stress.

A node is a specific point on the stem of a plant where one or more leaves, branches, or aerial roots originate. Nodes are important for the growth and reproduction of plants, as they contain buds that can develop into new shoots or flowers. The distance between two nodes on a stem is called an internode. Nodes and internodes vary in length and number depending on the species and environmental conditions of the plant.

Oblique roots, also known as heart roots, are a type of tree root system that provides stability by forming a root ball filled with soil at the base of the trunk. The root ball acts as an anchor and a counterweight for the above-ground part of the tree. Oblique roots grow both downward and outward, and they have secondary roots that branch out from the primary ones. Oblique roots are more common in dry soil regions, such as the Mediterranean, but they can become unstable in wet soil or flood-prone areas. Some examples of trees with oblique roots are sycamore and red oak.

Oikomi is a Japanese term that means "pushing in" or "moving in" in relation to bonsai. It is a method of trimming that is aimed at cutting back close to a bud in the root parts and thereby moving the next bud closer to the trunk. This technique helps to keep the branches thin and compact, as they tend to thicken over time. Oikomi is performed at different times depending on the kind of trees, but it usually occurs in spring or autumn.

The term "ornamental" in relation to bonsai means that the bonsai plant is grown for its aesthetic value and not for any other purpose.

The term "Overpotting" means planting a bonsai tree into a pot that is too large for its root system. This can have negative effects on the tree's health and growth, as the excess soil can retain too much water and cause root rot, or lack enough nutrients and oxygen for the roots to thrive. Overpotting can also make it harder to control the shape and size of the bonsai, as the tree may grow too fast or too slow. Overpotting is different from repotting, which is the process of transferring a bonsai to a new pot that fits its root system better. Repotting is usually done every few years, depending on the species and age of the tree . Overpotting should be avoided, as it can harm the bonsai's health and aesthetics.

Overwatering is a common and serious problem that can affect the health and survival of bonsai trees. Overwatering means giving the bonsai more water than it needs or can absorb, resulting in soggy soil and suffocated roots. Overwatered bonsai trees may show symptoms such as yellowing or browning of leaves, wilting of branches, mold or fungal growth, root rot, and leaf drop. To avoid overwatering, it is important to check the soil moisture regularly and water only when the topsoil feels dry to the touch. It is also advisable to use a well-draining soil mix and a pot with enough drainage holes. Overwatering can be reversed by repotting the bonsai in fresh soil, pruning any damaged roots or branches, and reducing the watering frequency until the tree recovers.

Peat is a type of partially decomposed plant matter that is often found in peat bogs. Peat has a high water retention capacity and can add texture and organic matter to the soil. Peat is sometimes used in bonsai soil mixes, especially for plants that prefer moist conditions. However, peat can also lower the pH of the soil and make it more acidic, which may not suit some plants. Peat should be used sparingly and mixed with other components such as grit, perlite, vermiculite or baked clay balls to improve drainage and aeration. Peat can also be used to wrap the roots of some plants, such as ferns, to create a kokedama ball, which is a type of Japanese moss ball.

The Chinese word "Penjing" means "landscape in a pot" and it is an ancient art form of creating miniature scenes with living plants, rocks, water and other elements. Penjing is also known by the name "Penzai", which means "planted in a container". Penjing is considered the origin of bonsai, which is the Japanese version of this art form. Bonsai focuses more on the shape and beauty of individual trees, while penjing emphasizes the harmony and balance of the whole landscape. Penjing has three main styles: Shumu (tree penjing), Shanshui (rock and water penjing) and Shuihan (water and land penjing). Each style has its own characteristics and techniques to create realistic and artistic representations of nature.

Perlite is a type of volcanic glass that is heated and expanded to form a lightweight and porous material. It is often used as a soil additive to improve drainage and aeration, especially for succulents and bonsai trees. Perlite can also reduce the weight of large pots and containers, which can be useful for growing collected trees or pre-bonsai. However, perlite has some drawbacks, such as its lack of nutrient retention, its tendency to float and wash away over time, and its bright white color that may not match the aesthetic of bonsai. Perlite is also a non-renewable resource, although it is widely available and relatively cheap. Perlite is one of the many options for bonsai soil mix, but it is not ideal for every situation. Depending on the type of tree, the climate, and the personal preference of the grower, perlite may or may not be suitable for bonsai. Some alternatives to perlite are pumice, akadama, lava rock, or pine bark. These materials have different properties and advantages that may suit different needs and preferences.

A petiole is a stalk that supports a leaf in a plant and attaches it to the stem. It is not the same as a stem, which is the main source of support and produces nodes and roots. A petiole can have different shapes, sizes and textures depending on the plant species. For example, a celery stick is actually a petiole of the celery plant, while some leaves have no petioles and are directly attached to the stem (sessile). The main function of the petiole is to transport water, nutrients and energy between the leaf and the rest of the plant.

pH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution is. It ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH affects plant growth by influencing the availability of nutrients and minerals in the soil. Different plants have different pH preferences, depending on their adaptation to their natural environment. For example, plants that grow in acidic soils (pH 5.0 to 5.5) include azaleas, rhododendrons, blueberries and conifers. Plants that grow in slightly acidic soils (pH 5.8 to 6.5) include vegetables, grasses and most ornamentals. Soil pH can be altered by adding lime or sulfur, depending on whether the soil is too acidic or too alkaline.

Phloem is a type of vascular tissue in plants that transports the products of photosynthesis, such as sugars, from the leaves to other parts of the plant. Phloem consists of several kinds of cells, such as sieve elements, companion cells, phloem parenchyma, and phloem fibres. Sieve elements are the main conducting cells that have pores in their walls to allow the flow of substances. Companion cells are specialized parenchyma cells that assist the metabolic functions of sieve elements. Phloem parenchyma are unspecialized parenchyma cells that store food and help in translocation. Phloem fibres are sclerenchyma cells that provide mechanical support to the phloem tissue.

A phoenix graft is a bonsai technique where a young sapling is attached to a piece of deadwood to create the illusion of an old and weathered tree. The name comes from the mythical bird that rises from the ashes of death, symbolizing rebirth and transformation . The Japanese term for this technique is tanuki, which means deception or cheat, and is often frowned upon by traditional bonsai artists. However, some Western bonsai artists view phoenix graft as a creative and artistic way of combining nature's art with living material .

To create a phoenix graft, one needs to select a piece of driftwood that has interesting natural lines and looks like a portion of a dead tree. The driftwood should be cleaned, carved, bleached and treated with wood preservative. Then, one needs to select a young and flexible plant that matches the species or appearance of the driftwood. The most popular plants used in phoenix graft are junipers. The plant should be fitted into a groove carved into the driftwood, following its curves. The plant should be secured with wire, glue or nails, and covered with moss or cut paste to hide the join. The plant should be watered and fertilized regularly to ensure its survival and growth.

Phosphorus is one of the 17 essential nutrients that plants need for growth and reproduction. It is involved in many biological processes, such as photosynthesis, energy transfer, cell division, cell enlargement, and genetic information. Phosphorus is also important for root development, seed formation, disease resistance, and stress tolerance in plants. Plants absorb phosphorus from the soil water as inorganic phosphate ions. However, phosphorus availability in the soil is often low due to various factors, such as soil pH, clay minerals, organic matter, and root activity. Therefore, phosphorus fertilizers are often applied to the soil to enhance plant growth and productivity. Phosphorus deficiency in plants can cause poor growth, delayed flowering, reduced yield, and purple or reddish coloration of leaves. Phosphorus excess can also be harmful to plants and the environment, as it can cause nutrient imbalance, water pollution, and algal blooms.

Photosynthesis is a process that allows plants and some other organisms to use light energy to make their own food. In this process, water and carbon dioxide are converted into oxygen and sugar, which can be used for energy and growth. Photosynthesis is essential for life on Earth, as it provides oxygen for animals and humans, and stores solar energy in organic molecules. Photosynthesis also helps regulate the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which affects the climate. Photosynthesis occurs in two main stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions. The light-dependent reactions capture light energy and use it to make ATP and NADPH, which are molecules that store energy. The light-independent reactions use these molecules to make sugar from carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis takes place in special structures called chloroplasts, which contain a green pigment called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll absorbs blue and red light, and reflects green light, giving plants their green color.

Pinching is a technique of pruning a bonsai tree that involves removing the tips of new shoots with the fingers. Pinching helps to shape the bonsai and maintain its miniature size. Pinching also encourages the development of smaller leaves and branches, which enhance the aesthetic appeal of the bonsai. Pinching should be done regularly and carefully, as over-pinching can weaken the tree and reduce its vigor. Pinching should also be done according to the type and season of the bonsai, as different species have different growth patterns and needs.

The term "Pirakansa" means "firethorn" in Japanese, and it is used to refer to a group of plants that belong to the Pyracantha genus. These plants are often used for bonsai because they produce attractive white flowers in spring and colorful berries in autumn and winter. The most common species of Pirakansa in bonsai are Tokiwakanzashi (Pyracantha angustifolia) and Tachibanamodoki (Pyracantha crenulata), which have different colors and shapes of berries. Pirakansa bonsai require careful watering, especially during the flowering and fruiting seasons, and they can be propagated by cutting or layering techniques.

The pot (the bon part of bonsai) is an essential element of bonsai art, as it complements the aesthetic and health of the miniature tree. The selection of a pot depends on various factors, such as the size, shape, color and style of the bonsai, as well as the season, environment and personal preference of the artist. A pot should harmonize with the bonsai, but not distract from its natural beauty. A pot should also provide adequate drainage, aeration and space for the roots to grow. A pot should be chosen with care and creativity, as it can enhance or diminish the overall impression of the bonsai.

A bonsai is pot-bound when its roots have filled the container and there is no more room for them to grow. This can cause problems for the health and appearance of the bonsai, as it may become stressed, dehydrated, or root-bound. Pot-bound bonsai also require more frequent watering and fertilizing, as they have less soil to retain moisture and nutrients. To prevent or remedy this situation, the bonsai should be repotted regularly, usually every one to three years depending on the species and the size of the pot. Repotting involves removing some of the old soil and roots, and placing the bonsai in a slightly larger container with fresh soil. This will allow the bonsai to continue growing and developing in a healthy way.

Potassium, represented by the symbol K, is an essential nutrient for plant growth. It is involved in many physiological and biochemical processes, such as photosynthesis, enzyme activation, water and nutrient transport, protein and starch synthesis, and osmoregulation. Potassium also helps plants cope with stress, drought, disease, and cold. Plants take up potassium from the soil in the form of ions (K+), which are readily available in the soil solution or exchangeable with other cations on soil particles. However, not all soils can supply enough potassium for optimal plant growth, especially if they are sandy, weathered, or heavily cropped. In such cases, potassium fertilizers can be applied to supplement the soil's natural potassium reserves and prevent deficiency symptoms. Potassium deficiency can reduce plant growth, yield, and quality, as well as increase susceptibility to pests and diseases. Some common signs of potassium deficiency are yellowing or browning of leaf margins, curling of leaves, weak stems, and poor fruit development.

The term "Potensai" means potential bonsai. It is used to describe tree material that has the possibility of becoming a bonsai, but still needs a lot of work and time to achieve the desired shape and style. Potensai can be found in nurseries, gardens, forests or even in pots, but they are not yet refined or finished as bonsai. Potensai can be a challenge and a reward for bonsai enthusiasts who want to create their own bonsai from raw material.

A pre-bonsai is a young plant that is being grown and shaped to become a bonsai in the future. It is not yet in its final form or pot, but it has some characteristics of a bonsai, such as a smaller stature and root system. A pre-bonsai can be grown from a seed, cutting, or nursery stock, or collected from the wild. A pre-bonsai requires regular pruning and training to develop the desired style and appearance of a mature bonsai. A pre-bonsai becomes a bonsai when it reaches a stage of refinement and shows an artful miniature replica of a full-grown tree in nature.

Pruning a bonsai is the process of removing unwanted branches and leaves to shape the tree and promote its health. Pruning can be done in different ways depending on the type and stage of the bonsai. Some common pruning techniques are pinching, plucking, trimming, defoliation, and wiring. Pinching is used to stimulate new growth and create denser foliage. Plucking is used to expose the branches for wiring and styling. Trimming is used to cut off excess or unwanted growth and maintain the desired size. Defoliation is used to reduce the leaf size and increase light penetration. Wiring is used to bend and position the branches in a desired direction. Pruning a bonsai requires skill, patience, and creativity. It is one of the most important aspects of bonsai art.

Pumice is a natural volcanic rock that is often used as a soil component for bonsai trees. It has a porous structure that allows air to circulate around the roots, while also retaining some moisture. Pumice helps to improve drainage and prevent root rot, which are essential for the health and vigor of bonsai trees. Pumice can be used alone or mixed with other substrates, such as lava rock, perlite, or bark. Pumice is especially suitable for yamadori bonsai, which are collected from the wild and need to recover in a well-aerated soil.

The Chinese word "pun-sai" means scenery or landscape in a pot. It is the original term for the art of growing miniature trees in containers, which was practiced by the Chinese elite since 700 CE. The Japanese learned this technique from the Chinese monks and called it "bonsai", which means tree in a pot. Bonsai trees are intended to be a miniature representation of nature, planted within decorative containers.

The term "raceme" means a type of inflorescence or flower cluster that has a single main stem with many smaller branches, each bearing a single flower. In bonsai, racemes are often seen in species such as wisteria, which produce long, drooping clusters of fragrant flowers in spring. Racemes can add beauty and interest to a bonsai tree, but they also require careful maintenance and pruning to keep the tree healthy and balanced.

Raffia is a material made from dried strips of raffia palm leaves, which are native to parts of South America and Africa. It is commonly used to protect bonsai trees from damage during wiring, which is a technique to bend and shape the branches and trunk of the tree. Raffia works by wrapping around the branch or trunk before applying the wire, preventing the wire from cutting into the bark or wood, distributing the stress caused by bending, and keeping the branch moist. Raffia is soaked in water for about 30 minutes before use, to make it soft and pliable. It is usually applied in three or four layers, and removed after the wire is taken off .

Ramification is the process of branching or dividing into smaller branches. In trees, ramification refers to the development of secondary and tertiary branches from the main trunk or primary branches. Ramification is important for the growth, shape, and health of trees, as it affects the distribution of leaves, flowers, fruits, and buds. Ramification also influences the aesthetic and structural qualities of trees, especially in bonsai and landscaping.

Re-potting is an essential practice for maintaining the health and beauty of bonsai trees. Re-potting involves removing the tree from its pot, pruning its roots, and replacing the old soil with fresh bonsai soil. Re-potting helps to prevent the roots from becoming pot-bound and allows the tree to absorb more nutrients and water. Re-potting should be done in early spring, before the buds start to swell, or in fall, after the leaves have fallen. The frequency of re-potting depends on the species and age of the tree, but generally every two to five years is recommended. Re-potting should be done with care and patience, using proper tools and techniques.

Rengyo is a term that refers to a type of bonsai made from the forsythia suspensa, a deciduous shrub native to China. Rengyo bonsai are known for their yellow flowers that bloom in early spring, creating a contrast with the bare branches. Rengyo bonsai require a sunny and well-ventilated location, regular watering, pruning after flowering, and repotting every year.  The fruit of this plant is an important traditional Chinese medicine documented in Chinese Pharmacopeia as an antipyretic, antidotal and anti-inflammatory agent.

Ring-barking is a technique used in bonsai to create new plants from existing ones by interrupting the flow of nutrients from the parent tree to the branch, while allowing the branch to receive nutrients from the parent tree. This stimulates the formation of new roots from the injured part of the branch. Ring-barking involves cutting two parallel slits around the circumference of the branch and removing the ring of bark and cambium layer between them . Ring-barking is also known as girdling. Ring-barking is suitable for species such as Acer, Azaleas, Berberis, Buxus, Chaenomeles, Chamaecyparis, Cotoneasters, Euonymus, Forsythia, Hedera and Wisteria.

The root ball of a bonsai is the part of the plant that contains the roots and the soil. It is usually hidden inside a shallow pot, but sometimes the roots are exposed to create a special effect called nebari. Nebari is the Japanese word for "root spread" and it refers to the visible surface roots of a bonsai tree.

The term "root flare" refers to the surface roots that provide visual balance to a tree. Ideally, the surface roots are visible on all sides of the trunk. The root flare is also called "Nebari" in Japanese. There are different techniques to create or improve the root flare of a bonsai, such as regular root pruning or air layering methods. The root flare is crucial for the design of bonsai, as it creates a sense of stability and strength.
 

Root pruning is a technique that is essential for maintaining the health and appearance of bonsai trees. Root pruning involves removing some of the roots of the bonsai tree when repotting it, to prevent the roots from becoming overcrowded and suffocating the tree. Root pruning also stimulates the growth of finer roots that can absorb more water and nutrients, and reduces the vigor of the tree so that it can grow in a small pot. Root pruning is usually done in late winter or early spring, before the tree starts to bud. To root prune a bonsai tree, one needs to carefully remove the tree from the pot, comb out the roots with a root hook, and cut off any thick, long, or damaged roots with sharp scissors. The amount of roots to be removed depends on the species and age of the tree, but generally one should aim to balance the roots with the foliage. After root pruning, the tree should be repotted in fresh soil and watered well. Root pruning is a delicate process that requires skill and patience, but it is vital for creating beautiful and healthy bonsai trees.

The term "root stock" refers to the plant that provides the roots for another plant (called the scion) that is grafted onto it. Root stock is used to propagate plants that are difficult to grow from cuttings or seeds, such as some pines and dwarf cultivars. Root stock can also influence the growth rate, disease resistance, and hardiness of the scion. For bonsai purposes, root stock should be grafted as low as possible to avoid unsightly unions and mismatches in bark characteristics. Ideally, the graft should be buried at the soil line to create the illusion of a single plant.

A bonsai is root-bound when its roots have grown so much that they fill the pot and have no more room to expand. This can cause several problems for the health and appearance of the bonsai, such as reduced water and nutrient uptake, stunted growth, poor drainage, and root rot. Root-bound bonsai may also become unstable and topple over easily. To prevent these issues, it is important to repot the bonsai regularly and prune the roots as needed.

Rooting hormone is a product that contains chemicals that stimulate root growth in plant cuttings. These chemicals are synthetic versions of auxin, a natural plant hormone that regulates plant development and growth. Rooting hormone can be found in different forms, such as powder, liquid, or gel. Rooting hormone is not essential for all types of cuttings, but it can improve the success rate and the quality of roots for some plants, especially those with woody stems. Rooting hormone can also help the cuttings to develop faster and stronger than those without it. To use rooting hormone, the bottom part of the cutting should be moistened and dipped into the product before planting in a suitable medium.

The term "rosokume" means a candle-flame bud. It is a winter bud that grows in a long and slender shape, resembling a flame of a candle. Rosokume buds emerge from the vigorous parts of a tree during autumn to winter. They are often seen in pine trees and other conifers.

The term "Royagaki" means Chinese persimmon in Japanese. It is a species of persimmon native to China, with the scientific name Diospyros rhombifolia. It belongs to the family Ebenaceae. Royagaki is a popular bonsai subject because of its attractive fruits and leaves. The fruits are pointed and green, turning red in autumn. The leaves are oval and glossy, turning red in winter. Royagaki is a dioecious plant, meaning it has separate male and female flowers. It requires pollination by insects or artificial means to produce fruits. Royagaki bonsai needs plenty of water, shade in summer, and protection from frost in winter.

The term "Sabamiki" means "split trunk". It is a deadwood technique that creates a deep wound in the trunk of the tree, giving the impression of a lightning strike or an old injury. Sabamiki is used to enhance the aesthetic appeal and the illusion of age of the bonsai. It is usually done by removing the bark and carving out the wood with a drill or a knife. Sabamiki is often seen in coniferous trees, but can also be applied to deciduous trees.

Saikei is a Japanese art form that means "planted landscape" or "living landscape".  It involves creating miniature landscapes in trays or containers using living trees, rocks, soil, water, and other natural elements. Saikei is similar to bonsai, but it focuses more on the natural scenery than on the individual trees. Saikei is also different from bonseki and bonkei, which do not use living materials. Saikei is a way of expressing the beauty and harmony of nature in a small scale.

It is similar to "Penjing", which is the Chinese version of the same art, but with more freedom and variety in the elements and styles. Both Saikei and Penjing are derived from Bonsai, the art of growing individual trees in containers, but they focus more on the scenery than the trees.

The term "Saku" derived from the Japanese word for "blossom" or "flower".  It is often used to describe a style of bonsai that emphasizes the beauty and harmony of the flowers and fruits of the tree, as well as the overall shape and balance of the design. Saku bonsai can be created from various species of flowering and fruiting trees, such as pomegranate, azalea, quince, crabapple, etc. Saku bonsai are usually displayed during their peak blooming or fruiting season, and require careful pruning and wiring to achieve the desired effect. Saku bonsai are also a category of competition in some international bonsai events.

The term "Sakura" means cherry blossom in Japanese, and it is also used to refer to the cherry trees that produce these flowers. Sakura are the most popular species for bonsai, which are miniature versions of full-sized trees grown in containers. Bonsai artists use pruning and wiring techniques to shape the trees and create an artistic representation of nature. Sakura bonsai are highly valued for their beauty and symbolism, as they evoke the transient nature of life and the graceful acceptance of destiny. Sakura bonsai can be found in many colors, such as pink, white, red, purple and black, depending on the cultivar. The most common one for the cherry blossoms is the Prunus serrulata. Sakura bonsai usually bloom in late winter or early spring, and the blossom season is celebrated in Japan as a cultural event.

The term "Sankan" means a bonsai style that has three trunks emerging from the same base or root system. The word "Sankan" comes from the Japanese word for three, "san". This style is often used for conifers, such as pines, but can also be applied to other types of trees. The three trunks should have different heights and thicknesses, and create a balanced and harmonious composition. The main trunk should be the thickest and tallest, while the secondary trunk should be thinner and shorter, and the tertiary trunk should be the thinnest and shortest. The branches should be arranged in a way that does not hide the trunks from the front view of the bonsai.

Sarusuberi is a Japanese name for a species of tree that is often used for bonsai. Its scientific name is Lagerstroemia indica, and its common name is Crape Myrtle. Sarusuberi means "monkey slip" in Japanese, because the smooth bark of the tree makes it difficult for monkeys to climb. Sarusuberi is also called hyakujitsuko, which means "blooming for 100 days", because its flowers last for a long time in midsummer. Sarusuberi is a valuable bonsai material because of its beautiful flowers, trunk surface, and deciduous form. However, it requires careful watering and protection from cold and injuries.

The term "Sashi-eda" means a directional branch, or show branch, that acts as the focal point of a tree in relation to bonsai. It is usually the first, lowest and strongest branch of the bonsai, and it determines the overall design and balance of the tree. It is often big, long and thick, and it should match the height and thickness of the trunk. The term comes from the Japanese word "差し枝", which literally means "inserted branch".

The term "Sashieda" (or "Sashi-eda") means a directional branch, or show branch, that acts as the focal point of a tree. In many instances, sashieda branches are big, long and thick. They are determined by the height of a tree, the thickness of a trunk, the state of the trunk's tachiagari, the part of tree from the nebari surface roots at the base of the trunk, and the condition of the nebari. The balance between the thickness of the trunk and the sashieda, and between the height of the tree and the length of sashieda, is important. Requirements are weight, strength, and, simultaneously, beauty.

The term "Sashiki" means a cultivation technique of growing new trees from cuttings . It is very popular among bonsai growers because it is an inexpensive way to propagate new trees with the same characteristics as the parent tree. Sashiki can be done with most types of trees, especially deciduous trees and some conifers. The best time to cut and plant the cuttings is during spring and summer, depending on the tree species . The cuttings are usually 2-4 inches long and 1/8 inch thick, and are planted in a layer of bonsai soil over a coarse substrate. The cuttings will start to grow in a few weeks if the soil is kept slightly moist. Sashiki allows the bonsai grower to shape the tree from an early stage according to their vision.

The term "Satsuki" means "fifth month" in Japanese, and it refers to the time when the Satsuki azalea bonsai produces its beautiful flowers. The Satsuki azalea bonsai is a cultivar of the Rhododendron indicum species, native to Japan, but popular worldwide for its variety of colors and patterns. The Satsuki azalea bonsai is a broad-leaved evergreen that requires acidic soil, partial shade, frequent watering, and careful pruning to maintain its health and shape.

Scale insects are a large and diverse group of small insects that belong to the order Hemiptera, suborder Sternorrhyncha. They have a waxy covering that protects them from predators and insecticides, and they feed on plant sap by piercing plant tissues with their mouthparts. Some scale insects produce honeydew, a sugary substance that attracts ants and can cause sooty mold to grow on plants. Scale insects can damage or kill plants by reducing their vigor, causing leaf drop, or transmitting diseases. There are many types of scale insects, such as soft scales, armored scales, and mealybugs, each with different host plants and life cycles.

Seasonal bonsai are bonsai trees that change their appearance according to the seasons, such as flowering, fruiting, or changing colors. They can add variety and beauty to your bonsai collection, but they also require careful pruning and maintenance to keep them healthy and in shape. Pruning seasonal bonsai should be done according to the tree's life cycle, which depends on the species, the climate, and the photoperiod. Generally, pruning should be done from spring to autumn, when the tree is actively growing, and avoid pruning too much or too close to the trunk. Pruning can help remove dead leaves, control the size and shape of the tree, and stimulate new growth or flowering. Some examples of seasonal bonsai are Japanese White Pine, Cherry, Juniper, and many flowering bonsai species.

The term "Seihobachi" means a square-shaped pot when viewed from above. It is a Japanese word that is used to describe one of the possible containers for bonsai trees. Seihobachi pots are usually made of clay and have drainage holes at the bottom. They can vary in size, color and design, but they always have four equal sides and four right angles . Seihobachi pots are suitable for bonsai trees that have a formal upright, informal upright, slanting or cascade style.

Sekikazari is a term that refers to the art of arranging bonsai and other elements on a designated area or seat for display. Sekikazari is often used for shohin bonsai, which are small-sized bonsai that can fit in the palm of a hand. Sekikazari aims to create a harmonious and aesthetic composition that reflects the season, the style and the personality of the bonsai artist. Sekikazari may include suiseki (viewing stones), scrolls, figurines, flowers and other accessories that complement the main bonsai. Sekikazari is a traditional and sophisticated form of bonsai display that requires skill, creativity and knowledge of bonsai culture.

Sekkai iogozai is a term that refers to an agrochemical lime sulfur that has been used for a long time in bonsai cultivation. It is a reddish-brown transparent water solution that contains 27.5 percent of calcium polysulfide. Sekkai iogozai is mainly used as a germicide to remove ticks and scale insects from bonsai trees. It can also be used to whiten the bark of some trees, such as white pines, by spraying it on the trunk and branches in winter.

The term "Sekkan" means "light-colored" in Japanese and it is used to describe a cultivar of Cryptomeria japonica, the Japanese cedar or Sugi. Sekkan-sugi is a small tree with pale creamy yellow young foliage that contrasts with the older green needles. It is a fast-growing variety that can reach up to 24 inches or more in a single season. Sekkan-sugi is suitable for bonsai and can be styled in various ways, such as formal and informal uprights, root over rock, or twin trunk. It requires full sun but not scorching heat, and it can tolerate some frost. It has a conical shape with branches that are more pendent than the species and produces small brown cones in the fall.

The term "Sekkasho" means fossilization in Japanese. It is used to describe a condition when a part of a plant becomes flattened or distorted, resembling a cockscomb or a fan. Sekkasho is often seen in plants used for Ikebana, the Japanese art of flower arrangement. Sekkasho can also be applied to bonsai, as some artists may intentionally create this effect to enhance the uniqueness or character of their trees .
 

The term "Sentei" means the act of planning and trimming trees in relation to bonsai. The purpose of Sentei is to maintain the height and form of matured trees, prevent pests, and promote sprouting. Sentei is derived from the Japanese word for "garden maintenance" and is one of the basic techniques of bonsai cultivation. Sentei is different from other pruning methods such as "Sashi-eda" or "Kiri-eda", which are used to create the desired shape and style of the bonsai.

The term "Sentei" means the act of planning and trimming trees. It is used in relation to bonsai to maintain the height and form of matured trees, prevent pests, and promote sprouting.

Shari is a term used in bonsai to describe the exposed wood on the trunk or branches of a tree. Shari is created when the bark is removed or damaged, exposing the inner wood to the elements. Shari can occur naturally due to weather, insects, animals, or fire, or it can be artificially created by the bonsai artist to enhance the appearance of age and character in the tree. Shari can be made by using tools such as knives, chisels, wire brushes, or jin pliers. Shari should be treated with lime sulfur or other preservatives to prevent rotting and fungal infections. Shari can add interest and beauty to a bonsai, but it should be done with care and respect for the health and balance of the tree.

The term "Shimekomu" means "tightening the form of trees in order to stem branch growth". It is a process of ramification that involves pruning and wiring the branches to create a compact and dense foliage.  Shimekomu is often used for deciduous trees that have large leaves, such as maples, elms, and zelkovas. By applying shimekomu, the bonsai artist can reduce the leaf size and create a more realistic and harmonious appearance of the tree.

The term "Shimpaku" refers to a variety of juniper tree (Juniperus chinensis) that is native to Japan and some parts of Asia. It is highly valued as a bonsai material because of its attractive foliage, beautiful bark, and hard resinous wood. The foliage is needle-like on young trees and scale-like on older trees, and the bark has a reddish color that contrasts with the white deadwood. Shimpaku junipers grow best in rocky, well-drained soils near the sea, and they can tolerate various weather conditions. They require regular pruning, wiring, and deadwood work to create a natural and elegant appearance that reflects the harshness of nature and the perseverance of life.

The term "Shitaeda" means a single or group of lower branches coming out of a place near the base of trees regardless of their length. Such a branch is extremely important in deciding the shape of a bonsai, as it helps to create balance and harmony. The term comes from Japanese and literally means "under branch". 

Some sources also use the term "Shitaeda" to refer to any branch that is lower than the main trunk line, even if it is not near the base. In this case, the lowest branch is called "Ichino Eda", which means "first or lowest branch".

The Japanese term "Sho" means "individual differences" in the context of bonsai. It refers to the variations or deviations among individual species with regard to their general appearance.  The term is often applied to bonsai where it represents the individual characteristics of particular tree species. Examples of its use in depicting trees include ''good nature,'' ''the character of leaves,'' and ''the nature of the bark,'' among others. The expressions may be used for those which are fixed in their characteristics..

Shuboku is a Japanese term that refers to the main or most important tree in a bonsai display. It is the core of the trees shaping the formation of trees having more than one trunk, such as kabudachi (multiple trunks), netsuranari (a raft of trees), or yose-ue (a forest of trees). The shuboku is usually the tallest and thickest trunk, which holds the central position in the group. Shuboku also means red clay balls (also known as akadama,) which is a type of bonsai soil ideal for most deciduous trees.

The Japanese term "Shukan" means the main trunk in a group of bonsai trees. It is related to two or more trunks among bonsai trees. The name is given to one that is the thickest, tallest, most powerful and holds the core of the composition. Shukan is also known as the "leader" or the "mother trunk" in English. Shukan is important for creating a balanced and harmonious bonsai group. Shukan can be found in different styles of bonsai, such as forest, raft, clump, or twin-trunk.

Sifting is a process of removing unwanted particles from bonsai soil, such as dust, sand, or fine particles. Sifting helps to improve the drainage and aeration of the soil, which are essential for the health and growth of bonsai trees. Sifting also helps to create a uniform and consistent soil mix, which makes it easier to apply fertilizers and water. Sifting can be done using a sieve, a colander, or a mesh screen with holes of different sizes. The ideal size of the holes depends on the type and size of the bonsai tree, but generally, anything smaller than 2 mm should be discarded. Sifting should be done before repotting or transplanting a bonsai tree, or whenever the soil becomes compacted or clogged.

Sinker roots are a type of root system found in some trees that grow vertically downwards from the horizontal surface roots. They have the function of anchoring the tree and accessing groundwater reserves, especially in dry or waterlogged soils. They also facilitate hydraulic redistribution, which is the movement of water from wet to dry soil layers through the roots. Some examples of trees with sinker roots are weeping willows, eastern cottonwood, and golden bamboo.

The Japanese term "Soe" refers to a type of bonsai display that uses an ornamental accent plant to complement the main bonsai tree. The Soe plant can be a small deciduous tree, a flower, or a grass that grows in the mountains or fields. The Soe plant is placed in relation to the main bonsai tree and other elements of the display, such as a seat or a floor decoration, to create a harmonious and natural scene. The choice of the Soe plant, as well as the pot and the table, should enhance the beauty and meaning of the main bonsai tree.

Soft-pruning is a technique of shaping bonsai trees by cutting off unwanted branches and shoots, rather than using wires to bend them. Soft-pruning is usually done on plants that have soft or brittle wood, such as jade, ficus, or azalea. Soft-pruning helps to expose the trunk and create a balanced canopy of foliage. It also encourages the growth of finer branches and leaves, which improves the appearance and health of the bonsai. Soft-pruning should be done regularly throughout the growing season, using sharp and clean tools to avoid damaging the plant.

A soil sieve for bonsai is a tool that helps to create a suitable soil mix for your bonsai trees. It filters out the larger particles and dust from the soil ingredients, leaving a fine and uniform mix that allows for better drainage and aeration. A soil sieve for bonsai usually consists of a frame made of wood or metal, and a mesh made of wire or cloth. The mesh can have different sizes of holes, depending on the desired soil texture. Some soil sieves or screens for bonsai have interchangeable screens that let you layer your soil for different purposes. A soil sieve for bonsai is essential for repotting your bonsai properly and ensuring its health and growth.

The Japanese term "Sokone" means the bottom part of the roots that come into view under the trunk. They are also cut deeply during transplantation. This term is used to describe the twin-trunk bonsai style, where two trunks emerge from a single root base. Sokone is one of the many bonsai terminologies that originated from Japan, where the art of bonsai has a long and rich history.

A "species" is a term used in the classification of trees to indicate a natural group of trees that belong to the same genus and share similar characteristics. For example, red maple (Acer rubrum) is a species of maple trees that have red flowers, fruits, and leaves in autumn. A species can be further divided into varieties or cultivars, which are subgroups that have distinct differences or traits that are inherited or selected. For example, Acer rubrum var. drummondi is a variety of red maple that has silver-white undersides of the leaves.

Sphagnum moss is a type of moss that grows in wet and acidic environments. It has many uses in horticulture, including bonsai cultivation. Sphagnum moss can help bonsai trees in several ways, such as:

• Providing moisture retention and preventing the soil from drying out quickly. Sphagnum moss can absorb up to 20 times its weight in water and release it slowly to the roots of the bonsai tree.
• Improving soil aeration and drainage by creating air pockets in the soil mix. Sphagnum moss can prevent soil compaction and root rot by allowing excess water to drain away.
• Enhancing soil nutrient retention and acidity by acting as a natural fertilizer. Sphagnum moss can store nutrients from rainwater and organic matter and release them to the bonsai tree over time. It can also lower the pH of the soil, which is beneficial for some acid-loving bonsai species.

Sphagnum moss can be used in different ways for bonsai, such as:

• Mixing it with other soil components, such as akadama, pumice, or lava rock, to create a well-balanced bonsai soil mix. The ratio of sphagnum moss to other ingredients depends on the type and size of the bonsai tree, the climate, and the watering frequency.
• Applying it on top of the soil surface or around the trunk and branches of the bonsai tree to create a natural-looking and colorful appearance. Sphagnum moss can also protect the soil from erosion and evaporation.
• Using it for air layering, a technique that involves removing a branch from a bonsai tree and wrapping it with sphagnum moss to induce root formation. Sphagnum moss can provide the necessary moisture and nutrients for the new roots to grow.

Sphagnum moss is generally safe and beneficial for bonsai trees, but some precautions should be taken when using it, such as:

• Choosing high-quality and disease-free sphagnum moss from reputable sources. Some sphagnum moss may contain harmful fungi or bacteria that can infect the bonsai tree or cause allergies.
• Avoiding overwatering or underwatering the bonsai tree when using sphagnum moss.

Spider mites are tiny arachnids that feed on plant sap and can cause serious damage to gardens and crops. They belong to the Tetranychidae family, which has about 1,200 species. Spider mites have eight legs, two body segments, and piercing-sucking mouthparts. They can be green, orange, red, or yellow, depending on their age and species. Some spider mites change color in colder weather. Spider mites live on the undersides of leaves, where they lay eggs and spin protective webs. They thrive in dry and warm conditions and can reproduce very quickly. Some spider mites die in winter, while others survive by hiding in bark cracks or garden debris.

Stratification of a seed is a horticultural technique that simulates the natural conditions that some seeds need to experience before they can germinate. Many seeds have a dormancy phase that prevents them from sprouting until they are exposed to cold and moist environments for a certain period of time. This process can be done artificially by placing the seeds in a medium such as sand, peat, or vermiculite and refrigerating them in a plastic bag or container. The duration of stratification varies depending on the plant species, but it can range from a few weeks to several months. Some seeds even need two periods of stratification and warming before germinating. Stratification helps to break down the hard seed coat and trigger the growth of the embryo inside the seed.

The style of a bonsai tree is the aesthetic expression of its natural form and growth habit. A bonsai style can be influenced by various factors, such as the shape and size of the trunk, branches, leaves, and roots, the species and age of the tree, the environmental conditions and cultural practices, and the artistic vision and preferences of the bonsai artist. There are many different styles of bonsai, each with its own characteristics and challenges. Some of the most common styles are formal upright, informal upright, slanting, cascade, semi-cascade, literati, forest, raft, root-over-rock, and broom.

Styling is the process of shaping and manipulating a bonsai tree into a desired form. It involves techniques such as pruning, wiring, defoliation, grafting, and creating deadwood. Styling can be done according to traditional or modern styles, depending on the preference of the artist and the characteristics of the tree. The goal of styling is to create a natural and realistic appearance that reflects the beauty and harmony of nature.

Sublimation is the process of a solid changing directly into a gas without passing through the liquid state. This can happen to dead wood in very cold and dry environments, such as high mountains or polar regions. When sublimation occurs, the water molecules in the wood escape as vapor, leaving behind a dry and porous material. The decomposition rate of the wood is affected by sublimation in two ways. First, sublimation reduces the moisture content of the wood, which slows down the activity of fungi and bacteria that break down organic matter. Second, sublimation increases the surface area of the wood, which exposes more of it to oxygen and sunlight, which can accelerate the oxidation and erosion of the wood. Therefore, sublimation can have both positive and negative effects on the decomposition rate of the wood, depending on the environmental conditions and the type of wood.

A substrate is a material that supports the growth of plants by providing water, air, and nutrients. In bonsai soil, a substrate is usually a mixture of organic and inorganic components that have good water retention, drainage, and aeration qualities. Some common substrates used in bonsai soil are:

• Organic compost: This is decomposed plant matter, such as pine bark or forest floor, that provides nutrients and moisture to the bonsai roots. However, organic compost can break down over time and reduce drainage and aeration, so it should not be used alone or in large amounts.
• Fine gravel or grit: This is small pieces of rock or sand that help the water drain quickly and create air pockets for the roots to breathe. Fine gravel or grit also adds weight and stability to the pot.
• Lava rock: This is a porous volcanic rock that absorbs water and nutrients well and provides good drainage and aeration. Lava rock also has a natural reddish color that can enhance the appearance of the bonsai.
• Pumice: This is another type of volcanic rock that has a light weight and a high water and nutrient holding capacity. Pumice also improves drainage and aeration and prevents soil compaction.

The proportions of these substrates can vary depending on the type of bonsai tree, the climate, and the personal preference of the grower. A general rule of thumb is to use 1/3 organic compost, 1/3 lava rock, and 1/3 pumice for most bonsai trees. However, some species may require more or less organic matter or drainage. For example, tropical trees may need more organic compost to retain moisture, while succulents may need more lava rock or grit to prevent root rot.

Succulents are plants that have thick, fleshy leaves or stems that store water. They can survive in dry and harsh environments, and some of them can be grown as bonsai. Succulent bonsai trees are popular because they are easy to care for, have a variety of shapes and colors, and look stunning in shallow pots.

Some succulents that make great bonsai are Crassula ovata (jade plant), Sedum (stonecrop), and Euphorbia trigona (African milk tree), but there are many more to choose from. To make a succulent bonsai, you will need to prune the roots and branches regularly, use a well-draining soil mix, water sparingly, fertilize once a month during the growing season, and provide enough light. You can also wire the branches to shape them, but be careful not to damage the bark. You can follow the traditional bonsai styles or create your own based on the natural growth habits of the succulents.

Sugi is the Japanese name for Cryptomeria japonica, a large coniferous tree that is also known as Japanese cedar or Japanese redwood. Sugi is a popular bonsai tree in Japan and can be styled in various ways. Sugi bonsai trees need full sun, high humidity, regular watering and fertilizing, and protection from frost.

A suiban is a shallow container that is used for ikebana, the Japanese art of floral arrangement. Suiban are designed to hold kenzan, which are metal pins that support the flowers and branches in the water. Suiban come in various shapes, sizes, colors and materials, and they can create different effects depending on the style and season of the arrangement. Suiban are also used for rock plantings, where stones and plants are arranged to create miniature landscapes. Suiban can be made of ceramic, metal, wood or bamboo, and they are often chosen to match the theme and mood of the ikebana.

Suiseki is a Japanese art form that involves the appreciation of natural stones for their beauty and symbolism. Suiseki stones are usually small and unaltered, and they resemble landscapes, animals or other objects associated with nature. Suiseki stones are collected from various places where nature has shaped them, such as rivers, mountains, deserts or beaches. Suiseki stones are displayed on wooden bases or in trays filled with sand or water, to enhance their aesthetic value and evoke a sense of harmony with nature.

Sukasu is a Japanese term that means "to make thin" or "to reduce" in the context of bonsai. It refers to the technique of removing excess branches, leaves, or roots from a bonsai tree to improve its shape and health. Sukasu is an important part of bonsai maintenance, as it helps to create a natural-looking tree that reflects the beauty and balance of nature.

Tachigari is a term used in bonsai to describe the lowest part of the trunk without branches, where the plant emerges from the nebari (visible roots) and grows upward. Tachigari is important for creating a balanced and natural-looking bonsai, as it determines the initial shape and taper of the trunk. Different bonsai styles, such as chokkan (formal upright), moyohgi (informal upright), shakan (slanting) and bunjingi (literati), may require different tachigari techniques to achieve the desired form.

Takaue is a term used in bonsai art to describe the technique of planting the tree at a soil level that is higher than the rim of the pot. This method is adopted to emphasize a fine portion of the root or to create harmony between the shape of the tree and the pot. Takaue is also suitable for trees with a low edashita, which is the length from the lowest branch to the ground surface. Takaue means "high planting" in Japanese.

The Japanese term "Taku" (卓) is one of the words that can be used to refer to a table or a stand for displaying bonsai. It can also be used as a counter for tables. Another word that is often used for bonsai stands is "Dai" (台) or "Daiza" (台座). There are also specific terms for different types of stands, such as "Netaku" (根卓) for a root stand or "Kadai" (架台) for a stand, frame or abutment. The choice of the appropriate stand for a bonsai depends on the style, size and season of the tree, as well as the aesthetic preference of the owner or exhibitor.

The Japanese term "Tamahi" means a type of organic fertilizer that is specially designed for bonsai trees. Tamahi is made of a blend of rapeseed meal, bone meal, fish meal, soy, minerals and rice bran that are fermented and dried into pellets. Tamahi is renowned for its gradual and long-lasting fertilizing effect, and it can be used for both deciduous and coniferous bonsai. Tamahi is often imported from Japan, where it is widely used by bonsai enthusiasts and professionals.

The Japanese term "Tanakazari" means a wooden display for bonsai trees. It is a way of arranging several small bonsai trees on a shelf made of Chinese wood, such as rosewood, ebony or Chinese quince. The purpose of Tanakazari is to enhance the beauty and presence of the bonsai trees by leaving enough space between them. Tanakazari is a form of bonsai appreciation that requires skill and artistry.

According to one source, Tanawari is a Japanese term that means "putting a branch shelf comprising many layers of branches neatly in order and dividing it to several layers". It is a word used to praise the beauty of the branch arrangement in a bonsai tree. Tanawari is an important aspect of bonsai aesthetics, as it creates a sense of depth and balance in the tree's silhouette.

The Japanese term "tanshi" means a small branch that emerges from an area near the base where other branches extend. It also means "cluster of flowers". Tanshi are often seen in bonsai trees, especially in deciduous species. They can be used to create a sense of depth and perspective in the bonsai design, or they can be removed if they interfere with the overall balance and harmony of the tree. 
 

A tanuki in bonsai is a technique that involves using a dead piece of wood and a living plant to create the illusion of an old and mature tree. The word tanuki means raccoon dog in Japanese, and it is also a mythical creature that is known for its shape-shifting abilities. The tanuki in bonsai is named after this animal because it deceives the viewer into thinking that the dead wood is part of the living plant. The tanuki in bonsai is considered a controversial and unethical practice by some bonsai enthusiasts, who argue that it goes against the principles of natural beauty and harmony. Others see it as a creative and artistic expression that showcases the skill and ingenuity of the bonsai artist.

The Japanese term "Tanyoho" means bud trimming. It is one of the means of cutting off first buds of pine trees, such as kuromatsu (black), akamatsu (red) and nishikimatsu (a variety of red pine) . This technique is used to control the growth and shape of the pine branches and needles. Tanyoho is also known as mekiri .

Tanyoho is different from decandling, which is another technique of pruning pine candles in summer. Decandling stimulates the growth of new buds and needles, while tanyoho reduces the number of buds and needles .

One example of a pine tree that can be trained with tanyoho is the Tanyosho pine (Pinus densiflora Umbraculifera), which is a cultivar of Japanese red pine. It has a natural umbrella shape that can be modified with bonsai techniques.

A taproot is a primary root that grows vertically downward and gives off small lateral roots. It is the main root of a plant that has a taproot system. Some plants use their taproots as storage organs for food or water.

Trees are plants that have taproots, but not all trees have the same type of taproot. Some trees have a persistent taproot that remains dominant throughout their life, while others have a transient taproot that is replaced by a fibrous root system after a few years. The type of taproot depends on the species of the tree and the soil conditions.

Some examples of trees that have persistent taproots are oaks, elms, pines and firs. Some examples of trees that have transient taproots are maples, birches, willows and poplars.

A tatami mat is a type of mat used as a flooring material in traditional Japanese-style rooms. According to OxfordDictionaries, a tatami mat is "a rush-covered straw mat forming a traditional Japanese floor covering". Tatami mats are made in standard sizes, twice as long as wide, about 0.9 metres by 1.8 metres depending on the region. They have a core of rice straw or other materials, and a cover of soft rush grass with cloth borders. Tatami mats have a long history in Japan, dating back to the 8th century, and were originally a luxury item for the nobility. They gradually became popularized and reached the homes of commoners by the 17th century. Tatami mats are also used for training and competition in martial arts. Tatami mats have a unique woody fragrance and are soft underfoot.

The Japanese term "Tatekae" means restyling the structure of a tree which takes place when problems arise from the length and form of branches and trunks. Tatekae can involve remaking the tip of a branch or trunk, changing the direction of growth, or removing unwanted parts. Tatekae is done to improve the appearance and health of the bonsai, as well as to express the artist's vision and creativity.

The term "terminal" is used to describe the position of a flower or a bud on a plant. A terminal flower or bud is one that grows at the end of a branch or stem, as opposed to an axial flower or bud, which grows out of the leaf angle where it joins the stem. Terminal flowers or buds are also called apical, especially when they are at the top of the plant. Terminal flowers or buds may be solitary or part of an inflorescence, a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem. Terminal flowers or buds are often more conspicuous and attractive than axial ones, as they serve to attract pollinators and protect young flowers from herbivores.

Thrips are small insects that belong to the order Thysanoptera, which means "fringed wings". They have slender bodies, usually less than 1 mm long, and asymmetrical mouthparts that they use to pierce and suck plant sap. Thrips can cause damage to many ornamental and food plants by creating streaks, silvery speckling, and small white patches on the leaves and flowers. Some thrips can also transmit viruses to plants, such as the tomato spotted wilt virus. Thrips can be identified by shaking the plant over a white paper and looking for tiny dark slivers, or by using a magnifying glass or a blue sticky trap.

The Japanese term "Tobu" means to fly and is used to describe a situation where there is too much space between branches and buds on a bonsai tree. This can make the bonsai look sparse and unnatural, as it does not reflect the appearance of a full-sized tree in nature. Tobu can be avoided by pruning and wiring the branches to create a more compact and balanced shape.

Tocho-shi is a Japanese term that refers to a branch that has grown too long and strong in momentum among the branches of a bonsai tree. It is considered a flaw because it disrupts the harmony and balance of the tree's shape and appearance. Tocho-shi branches are usually pruned or trimmed to maintain the desired style and proportion of the bonsai.

The term "Tokiwakanzashi" means "evergreen thorn" in Japanese and refers to a type of bonsai made from the Pyracantha genus of plants, also known as firethorn. These plants are native to Asia and Europe and produce small white flowers in spring and red or yellow berries in autumn and winter. They are popular for their colorful fruits and their ability to withstand cold weather. Tokiwakanzashi bonsai can be propagated by cutting or layering techniques and require careful watering to avoid damaging the flowers or the fruits.

A tokonoma is a recessed space in a Japanese-style room, where objects of artistic or cultural value are displayed. It is usually located at the farthest end of the room from the entrance, and slightly elevated from the floor level. The items displayed in a tokonoma may include a hanging scroll, a flower arrangement, a bonsai, or a piece of pottery. The tokonoma is not meant to be stepped into or used for storage, as it has a special significance in Japanese interior design. The tokonoma originated from the Buddhist altar of the Kamakura period, and later became a place to showcase works of art in the Muromachi period. The tokonoma is often accompanied by a wooden pillar on one side, which adds to the aesthetic and formal quality of the space.

The Japanese term "Tomeru" means a stop or cut off, and it refers to chopping off a branch in bonsai. It is used when a branch is cut short and to stay in that condition for a replacement of branches.

The Japanese term "Topiary" means the art of cutting, shaping and trimming trees and shrubs into artificial and ornamental shapes, such as animals, people or geometrical forms. Topiary is different from bonsai, which means "tray planting" and refers to the practice of growing miniature trees in containers that resemble their natural counterparts. Topiary is usually done with evergreen plants with small leaves or needles, while bonsai can be done with any tree species. Topiary is often regarded as a "living sculpture", while bonsai is a representation of nature.

The Japanese term "Toriki" means air-layering in the context of bonsai. It is a technique to propagate new trees by forcing a branch or trunk to form new roots at a certain point by interrupting the nutrient flow from the existing root system. The new roots are then separated from the parent tree and planted as a new bonsai. There are two main methods of toriki: the tourniquet method and the ring method, depending on how the nutrient flow is blocked. Toriki is useful for reducing the length of a trunk, improving the root flare, or selecting a branch to be grown as a separate tree.

Tosho is a Japanese term that refers to a type of bonsai made from needle juniper (Juniperus rigida). Needle juniper is a coniferous tree native to Japan, China and Korea, and it has sharp and fine needles. Tosho bonsai are prized for their knobby deadwood, known as ibo-jin or wart-jin in Japanese, and their thin life lines with good movement. Tosho bonsai are often collected from the wild and require careful handling and pruning. The bonsai museum at Shinpukuji Temple in Japan features some great examples of tosho bonsai.

Training is the process of shaping and maintaining the desired form and size of a bonsai tree. It involves various techniques such as pruning, wiring, defoliation, grafting, and repotting. Training can start from a seedling, a cutting, or a pre-bonsai material. The goal of training is to create a miniature representation of nature that reflects the aesthetic principles and artistic vision of the bonsai artist.

Transpiration is the process of water loss from plants through evaporation. It occurs mainly through the stomata, which are small pores on the leaf surface that allow gas exchange. Plants take in more water than they need for growth and metabolism, and transpire the excess water to regulate their temperature and access carbon dioxide. Transpiration also helps maintain the moisture balance in the environment and influences the water cycle. Transpiration accounts for about 10% of the water vapor in the atmosphere.

The term "Trunk Leader" refers to the dominant vertical stem that is usually at the top of the main trunk of a tree. It is also called the tree leader or the main leader. The trunk leader is important for the structural integrity and the growth form of the tree. Trees with a single trunk leader are stronger and healthier than trees with multiple competing leaders. The trunk leader can be damaged by natural causes or human intervention, and may need to be repaired or replaced by pruning or staking. The trunk leader is one of the key features of the central leader form, which is a common tree form that has lateral branches growing off the leader in well-spaced layers.

Tsugiho is a Japanese term that means a scion or a branch that is used for grafting on another tree. It is a technique of asexual reproduction of trees that allows the propagation of desirable traits or the creation of new styles. Tsugiho can be obtained from the same tree or from a different tree of the same species. There are different types of grafting methods, such as yobitsugi, which involves grafting a branch on a wound, or nobudoki, which involves grafting a bud on a stem.

The Japanese term "Tsugiki" (接ぎ木) means grafting in English. It is a bonsai cultivation technique that involves fusing a graft (a shoot, branch or root) to a tree (also called the stump or rootstock). This technique is often used to combine strengths of two different plants together in one new plant, such as adding a branch, replacing foliage, or enhancing the root flare . There are different types of grafting, such as scion grafting, approach grafting, and thread grafting, depending on how the graft and the tree are joined. Grafting requires skill, precision, and patience, and it can produce beautiful and unique bonsai trees.  Tsugiki can be applied to various tree species, such as pines and junipers, but it requires skill, precision, and patience. Tsugiki is considered an important technique to preserve and improve the quality of bonsai trees.   

Tsukamiyose (つかみ寄せ) is a way to plant several to several dozen seedlings by lump in a pot. Since the roots of seedlings are planted with all of them attached to one another, they come closer together and form a dense cluster of trunks. This technique is used to create bonsai trees that resemble natural forests or groves. Tsukamiyose is also known as "grab and plant" or "clump style" in English.

Tufa rock is a type of soft, porous limestone that is formed by the precipitation of calcium carbonate from water. It is often found near springs, lakes, or rivers, where the water has a high mineral content. Tufa rock is easy to shape and carve, and can be used to create natural-looking containers or landscapes for bonsai trees. Tufa rock can also provide a source of calcium for the plants, and help to buffer the pH of the soil. One way to use tufa rock in bonsai is to hollow out a section of the rock and plant the tree in it as if in a pot. This is suitable for trees that like moist conditions, such as willows, azaleas, or maples. The rock should have drainage holes at the bottom, and the cavity should be filled with a well-draining soil mix. The tree should be watered regularly, and fertilized sparingly. Another way to use tufa rock in bonsai is to create a root-over-rock or clasped-to-rock style. This is suitable for trees that can adapt to dry conditions, such as junipers, pines, or spruces. The rock should have an interesting shape, texture, and color, and should match the natural habitat of the tree. The roots of the tree should be wrapped around the rock, and covered with a thin layer of soil and moss. The tree should be planted in a shallow container, and watered carefully to avoid root rot.

Turface is a type of calcined clay that is often used in professional baseball stadiums to help with drainage and aeration. It is a popular option for bonsai, as it can absorb its weight in water while decreasing soil compaction. Turface can be used instead of akadama or kanuma, which are more expensive types of clay. However, some drawbacks of turface are that it has a small particle size, which can trap too much moisture and reduce aeration in larger pots. It can also break down over time and become muddy. Therefore, turface is more suitable for smaller pots and trees that need frequent watering.

The Japanese term "Uetsuchi" ( 植土 ) literally means "planting soil"; the soil used when a bonsai tree is planted in a pot. It is also called yodo (soil for horticulture), which is different from kesho tuchi (sand used as top-dressing) and gorotsuchi (largest grain in akatsuchi soil used for good drainage). The term "Uetsuchi" .   

The Japanese term "Uetsuke kakudo" (植付け角度) means the planting angle of a bonsai tree. It is an important factor that affects the appearance and style of the bonsai. By changing the uetsuke kakudo, one can create different impressions and expressions of the tree, such as strength, elegance, movement, or balance. The uetsuke kakudo should be determined according to the shape and characteristics of the trunk, branches, and roots, as well as the size and shape of the pot.

The Japanese term "Ukeeda" (受け枝) means a counterweight branch in bonsai. It is usually placed on the opposite side of the tree from the "Kikieda" (気木枝), which is the point branch or the focal point of the tree. The Ukeeda balances the strength and direction of the Kikieda and creates harmony in the overall design of the bonsai.

Ume (梅) is a Japanese term that refers to both the Prunus mume tree and its edible fruit. Prunus mume is also known as Japanese apricot, Chinese plum, or flowering plum. It is a deciduous tree that produces fragrant white or pink flowers in late winter, before the leaves emerge. The flowers are highly valued in Japanese culture and symbolize hope, purity, and perseverance. The fruits are green and sour when unripe, but turn yellow and sweet when ripe. They are often pickled in salt, vinegar, or alcohol to make umeboshi (梅干し), umezu (梅酢), or umeshu (梅酒), respectively. These products have various culinary and medicinal uses in Japan.

Prunus mume is also a popular species for bonsai, as it has an attractive shape, bark, and foliage, as well as the ability to flower in winter. Prunus mume bonsai require a sunny location, regular watering, and frequent fertilization after flowering. They should be pruned in spring to encourage branching and bud formation, and repotted every two to three years. Prunus mume bonsai are hardy to USDA zone 6 and can withstand cold temperatures if protected from frost and wind.

The Japanese term "Umemodoki" (梅擬き) means "mock ume" or "ume-oid" with regard to bonsai. It refers to a species of holly (Ilex serrata) that has leaves and branches similar to the Japanese apricot (Prunus mume), but produces red, yellow or white berries instead of flowers. Umemodoki bonsai are valued for their colorful fruits and fine branch shapes, but they require careful watering, sun protection and bird prevention.  

Under watering is a term that refers to the condition of a plant when it does not receive enough water to meet its needs. Under watering can cause various symptoms, such as wilting, browning, curling, and dropping of leaves, as well as stunted growth and reduced vigor. Under watering can also affect the health of the roots, making them more susceptible to diseases and pests.

In terms of bonsai and horticulture in general, under watering can be a serious problem, as plants in containers have limited access to water and depend on regular irrigation. Bonsai trees, in particular, have small and restricted root systems that require frequent watering to prevent them from drying out. Bonsai trees also have coarse and well-draining soil that does not retain much moisture, so they need to be watered thoroughly until the excess water drains out of the pot.

To avoid under watering your bonsai tree, you should check the soil moisture regularly by feeling it with your finger or using a moisture meter. You should water your bonsai tree only when the soil feels slightly dry, not when it is completely dry or wet. You should also use a watering can with a fine nozzle to water your bonsai tree gently and evenly, making sure that all the soil is wetted. You can also submerge your bonsai tree in a bucket of water for a few minutes until no more bubbles appear, then let it drain completely. This method ensures that the soil is fully saturated and that there are no air pockets in the root zone.

Under watering your bonsai tree can be detrimental to its health and appearance, so you should monitor your tree closely and water it accordingly. By providing your bonsai tree with adequate water, you can help it thrive and enjoy its beauty for a long time.

Uro (裏炉) is a technique for creating deadwood in bonsai. It means to hollow out the space where a branch has been removed and preserve it with lime sulfur to give it an aged look. Uro occurs naturally when branches are torn off by strong winds, storms or lightning. Uro is often seen on deciduous trees and adds character and realism to the bonsai.

The Japanese term "Ushiroeda" (後枝 or 裏枝) means a back branch that extends to the back of the tree trunk in bonsai. It is also called "Uraeda" or the backside branch. It is considered to be in good appearance if the roots are not seen but visible from the front of the tree.

The Japanese term "Uwane" (上根) means the visible surface roots that come out of the base of a bonsai tree and spread at the top of the pot. They are also active in an area near the face of soil. Uwane are considered an important feature of bonsai as they symbolize the age and stability of the tree. Some bonsai varieties, such as the Japanese Red Pine or Akamatsu (赤松), have gentle, long, thin leaves and a slim trunk, which contrast well with the thick and strong Uwane.

The Japanese term "Uwatsuchi" (上土) means "surface soil" with regard to bonsai. It is a type of fine soil that is spread over the coarser soil (uetsuchi) on the surface of a pot. It is also called "keshotsuchi" (消し土) or "silver white sand". It prevents the soil from drying out, protects the roots, and enhances the appearance of the bonsai.

Variegation is the appearance of differently coloured zones in the leaves and sometimes the stems and fruit of plants. It is usually the result of a lack of the green pigment chlorophyll in some of the plant cells, which can be caused by genetic, chimeric or viral factors . Variegated plants are often valued for their ornamental appeal, but they may also have reduced growth and photosynthesis due to the lower chlorophyll content . Some examples of plants with variegated leaves are dogwood, yellow archangel, yellow loosestrife, salvia, nasturtium and garden phlox.

The "variety" of a tree or plant is a term that refers to the genetic differences within a species. A variety is a group of individuals that share some characteristics that distinguish them from other members of the same species. For example, apples are a species of fruit trees, but there are many varieties of apples, such as Gala, Fuji, Granny Smith, etc. Each variety has its own traits, such as color, shape, size, flavor, and resistance to pests and diseases. Varieties can arise naturally through mutations or hybridization, or they can be artificially created by humans through selective breeding or genetic engineering.

Vermiculite is a mineral that can absorb and retain water, as well as provide nutrients to plants. It is often used in gardening as a soilless growing medium, mixed with other components such as peat moss or perlite. Vermiculite can be beneficial for some bonsai plants that need more moisture and have high pH levels, such as ferns, bamboo, and cacti. However, vermiculite alone is not enough to support the growth and health of bonsai plants, as it has poor aeration and can cause root rot. Therefore, vermiculite should be used sparingly and in combination with other materials that can improve drainage and oxygen supply to the roots of bonsai plants.

A whetstone is a type of sharpening stone that is used to hone the edges of steel tools, such as cutters and scissors, by grinding and polishing them. Whetstones can be made of natural or synthetic materials, and they usually have two sides with different grit sizes. The coarse side is used to remove metal and create a new edge, while the fine side is used to refine and smooth the edge. Whetstones can be used with water or oil as a lubricant to reduce friction and prevent overheating. Whetstones are essential for maintaining sharp and effective bonsai tools.

Whiteflies are tiny insects that feed on the sap of plants, including bonsai trees. They can cause damage to the leaves, stems, and roots of the bonsai, as well as produce a sticky substance called honeydew that attracts other pests and fungi. Whiteflies can be hard to spot because they hide under the leaves and fly away when disturbed.

To treat whitefly infestations in bonsai, you can use several methods:

• Remove the affected leaves and dispose of them in a sealed bag or bin.
• Use sticky traps to catch the adult whiteflies and monitor the population.
• Spray the bonsai with a homemade insecticidal soap made of water, dish soap, and vegetable oil. Repeat every few days until the infestation is gone.
• Rinse the bonsai with water to wash off any honeydew or soap residue.
• Apply neem oil to the bonsai as a natural pesticide that kills and repels whiteflies and other pests. Follow the instructions on the label and avoid applying it in direct sunlight.
• Attract beneficial insects such as ladybugs or parasitic wasps that prey on whiteflies and their eggs. You can buy them online or from garden centers.

Whitefly infestations can be prevented by keeping your bonsai healthy, well-watered, and well-drained. You should also inspect your bonsai regularly for any signs of pests or diseases, and isolate any new or infected plants from the rest of your collection.

Wiring is a technique used in bonsai to change the position of branches and trunks without having to prune them. By wrapping wire around the parts of the bonsai tree, the artist can bend and reposition them to create a desired shape and style. The wire should be applied carefully and removed on time to avoid damaging the bark or leaving scars. Wiring can be done at any time of the year, but some species are easier to wire when they are dormant or leafless. There are two types of wire that can be used for bonsai: anodized aluminum and annealed copper. Aluminum wire is softer and more flexible, while copper wire is harder and more durable. The wire should be about 1/3 of the thickness of the branch or trunk that is being wired.     

Wound sealant for bonsai is a product that helps to protect and heal the cuts or wounds that are made on the tree during pruning or shaping. Wound sealant creates a barrier against moisture loss, pathogens, and damage, and promotes the formation of scar tissue. Wound sealant can be applied with a brush or a spatula over the entire wound area, including the edges. There are different types of wound sealants available, such as cut paste, wound sealant paste, and grafting sealants. They are usually made of non-toxic, waterproof substances that blend well with the bark. Wound sealant should be used for larger cuts that may take longer to heal or are more exposed to infection. Wound sealant should be monitored regularly and removed when the wound is healed.

Xylem is a type of vascular tissue that carries water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant. It also provides structural support for the plant. Xylem consists of different kinds of cells, such as tracheids, vessel elements, fibers, and parenchyma. Tracheids and vessel elements are the main water-conducting cells, while fibers and parenchyma provide storage and mechanical strength. Xylem can be classified into primary xylem, which is formed by the apical meristem during primary growth, and secondary xylem, which is formed by the vascular cambium during secondary growth.

The Japanese term "Yagome" (やごめ) means the coming out of a "futeiga" (不定芽) indefinite bud from the root of a tree or some parts of the root. It often affects species such as "boke" (木瓜), or flowering quince. If left untouched, Yagome causes the existing small branches to lose their strength. Yagome is synonymous with Hikobae (ひこばえ), which also means sprouts from the roots.

The Japanese term "Yakekomu" (焼け込む) means "to burn into" or "to scorch" with regard to bonsai. It refers to a phenomenon where a trunk is dying toward the root from the wound mark after a thick branch is cut out or runs dry due to trouble . Such a phenomenon sometimes hits shohaku evergreen conifers such as Japanese black pine, Japanese red pine, and Japanese white pine. Yakekomu can ruin the appearance and health of a bonsai tree, so it should be prevented or treated as soon as possible.

The Japanese term "Yakueda" (役枝) means an extremely important or critical branch in bonsai. It is a branch that contributes to the overall shape, balance, and expression of the tree. The yakueda branch is not necessarily the main branch of the tree, but it may support or complement other branches. Bonsai growers need to identify the yakueda branch in the process of cultivating a young tree, and clarify the role of each branch in creating the desired form.

Yamadori is a Japanese term that means "collecting plants in the mountains" or "plant picking in the wild". It is a practice of bonsai collectors who search for trees in nature that have potential to become bonsai. Yamadori trees often have unique shapes and movements that reflect their struggle for survival in harsh conditions. Collecting yamadori requires permission, experience, tools, and care. Yamadori trees are usually dug out during early spring and potted in a mixture of original soil and akadama. They are kept moist and protected from direct sunlight until they recover and can be styled or repotted. Yamadori is one of the oldest and most rewarding ways to create bonsai trees.

The Japanese term "Yatsufusa" (八房) refers to the dwarf variety of a tree that will not grow to the size of an ordinary tree of the same species. Branches and leaves of a Yatsufusa tree are smaller than those of ordinary trees. Yatsufusa trees are suitable for bonsai cultivation because they send out small branches and leaves. They are also easy to grow and to shape the form of a tree. It is highly valued in the bonsai world.

The Japanese term "Yobitsugi" (寄せ継ぎ) means "invite connection" and is a grafting method that involves attaching a branch or a bud from another tree to the trunk or branch of the main tree. This technique can be used to create a more balanced shape, to fill in gaps, or to add variety to the foliage. The best season for yobitsugi grafting is from March through May.
 

The Japanese term "Yokone" (横根) means "horizontal root" with regard to bonsai. It refers to a tree root that extends horizontally in a container. Growers need to take proper care of yokone horizontal roots which can develop into nebari, the visible surface roots that are considered an important feature of bonsai aesthetics. Yokone horizontal roots help to convey the impression of age and stability of the bonsai tree.
 

The Japanese term "Yugozai" (有効剤) means "effective agent" with regard to bonsai. It is a type of cut paste that is used for sealing fresh wounds on bonsai trees. It helps speed up the healing of a wound and prevents complications such as infection or decay. Yugozai is light blue in color and made in Japan. It forms a smooth cover that drops off gradually as the callus forms.

The Japanese term "Za" (座) means "base" or "foundation" with regard to the bonsai tree. It refers to the part of the trunk that connects to the roots and forms the base of the tree's structure and stability. The Za is important for creating a balanced and harmonious bonsai design, as well as for ensuring the health and longevity of the tree.  They are also rock-like roots in a state of fusion and extending in all directions, or roots that have nearly developed into rock-like roots.

The Japanese term "Zen" (禅) means a Buddhist doctrine that emphasizes meditation as a way of attaining enlightenment or insight into one's true nature. The word "Zen" is derived from the Chinese word "Chan" (禪), which in turn is a transliteration of the Sanskrit word "dhyana" (ध्यान), meaning "meditation". Zen originated in India, but was developed further in China and Japan by various schools and masters. One of the key concepts in Zen is "kensho" (見性), which means "seeing one's (true) nature" or "seeing the Buddha-nature". Kensho is also translated as "awakening" or "satori" (悟り) in Japanese.